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THE 

THEORY AND PRACTICE 

OF SCIENTIFIC 

MANAGEMENT 



BY 



C. BERTRAND THOMPSON, A.M., LL.B. 

Sometime Lecturer on Manufacturing 
Harvard University 




BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 



/ ^ 



<* 



COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY C. BERTRAND THOMPSON 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



1-1 



Wi}t »ibtrsfat £ress 

CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



* SEP 18 1917 

©CI.A476115 

I 7..* /. 



TO THE HONORED MEMORY 

OF 

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 



PREFACE 

An element of risk attaches to any effort to 
appraise a movement while that movement is 
still in its earlier and more enthusiastic stages, 
especially when the appraisal is made by one 
who is (however modestly) a participant in it. 
The attempt is justified only by the accuracy 
with which facts are presented and by the justice 
and fairness of the inferences and conclusions 
drawn. In this book I have tried to give only 
facts which can be verified and to make infer- 
ences with all due conservatism. The result is 
offered for what it may be worth. There is some 
consolation in the thought that a later genera- 
tion may count it an original, or at least con- 
temporary, source. 

Owing to the nature of the investigations I 
have had to make in the preparation of this 
book, it is practically impossible to list the 
many friends and acquaintances to whom 
acknowledgments are due. First of all, I am 
indebted to the late F. W. Taylor, himself, for 
invaluable information, suggestions, and assist- 
ance, and to his group of followers, who have 
aided me in many ways and with whom I have 



VI 



PREFACE 



gained much of the practical experience, with- 
out which this book would have been written, 
if at all, from a quite different angle. 

Acknowledgment is due, moreover, to the 
many owners and managers who have kindly 
given permission to study their plants, and 
to them and to many employees for detailed 
information. 

I am also indebted to Dean E. F. Gay, of 
the Graduate School of Business Administra- 
tion, Harvard University, for stimulating crit- 
icisms of this work in its early stages, and to 
Messrs. E. G. Mears and H. H. Farquhar, 
former students of mine, for help on the almost 
interminable bibliography. 

Much of this book has already been pub- 
lished as a series of articles in the Quarterly 
Journal of Economics, and I am indebted to 
the editors of that journal for permission to 
use them again in their present form. For pub- 
lication in this book they have been revised and 
brought up to date as fully as the exigencies of 
a busy professional life have permitted. 

C. B. T. 



CONTENTS 

I. What Scientific Management is . . . i 
II. Frederick Winslow Taylor . . . .14 

III. Scientific Management in Practice . .36 

1. Statistics 37 _ 

2. Applications of Scientific Management . 41 *- 

3. Effects on Employees ...... 76 - 

4. Relations with the Public and with Organ- 

ized Labor 88 

5. Failures and their Causes 97 

IV. Economic Aspects of Scientific Management 105 

I. Scientific Management and the Entrepreneur 107 
II. Scientific Management and Labor . .116 

1. The Influence on Basic Wages . .117 

2. The Bonus Method and its Results . 121 

3. Labor Unions 139 

III. Larger Social Problems . . . . .156 

V. The Literature of Scientific Management 173 

1. Development and Theory of Scientific Man- 

agement as a Whole 176 

2. Scientific Management in Operation . .215 

3. Scientific Management and the Railroads . 220 

4. Methods 229 

5. The Personal Factor in Scientific Manage- 

ment 251 

6. Scientific Management and Organized Labor 262 

Bibliography 271 

Index 309 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE 
OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

I 

WHAT SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IS 

Any discussion of the theory and practice of 
scientific or positive management is confronted 
at the outset with the question, What is scien- 
tific management? 

The development of the factory system 
brought with it many new problems connected 
with the organization and management of 
labor, the structure and equipment of factories, 
and the technique of production. By success- 
ful manufacturers these problems have always 
been solved in a way to make manufacturing 
at a profit possible. Early solutions, however, 
were necessarily crude and roughshod. With 
the enormous increase in demand for manufac- 
tured products, in the investment of capital, 
and in the number of men engaged in the busi- 
ness, with the consequent development of ever- 
keener competition, the early methods have 
been found insufficient. Especially within the 



2 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

last twenty years a degree of skill and technical 
training has been brought to bear upon the 
solution of factory problems which has made 
modern factory management a thing much 
more elaborate, refined, and effective than ever 
before. A series of improvements in adminis- 
tration and methods have been made by many 
engineers and managers, and not a few of 
them have been developed by a method which 
might truly be called " scientific." Where, then, 
can we draw the line between modern manage- 
ment in general and what has come to be known 
technically as ''scientific management"? 

Out of the mass of engineers and managers 
who are responsible for present-day methods, 
there has grown a group originating with Mr. 
Frederick W. Taylor, of Philadelphia, who have 
perceived certain principles underlying the 
practices of management hitherto unrelated 
and uncoordinated. A collation of isolated suc- 
cessful experiments in various details of factory 
administration and methods has apparently 
shown a possibility of classification and general- 
ization. Such classification and generalization 
are the basis for the development of a science, 
and the term " scientific management" is ap- 
plied generally to the body of principles de- 
duced from experience by Mr. Taylor, and the 



WHAT IT IS 3 

engineers associated with and trained by him, 
and to the methods by which the resultant 
principles are applied to industry. " Scienti- 
fic management," therefore, is distinctively 
scientific, since it aims to correlate and sys- 
tematize all the best of modern developments 
in factory administration, and to push develop- 
ment further in accordance with the principles 
discovered. 1 

On the basis of this definition it is not difficult 
to segregate that portion of modern factory 
management which constitutes scientific man- 
agement from that other portion which includes 
the many unrelated improvements, methods, 
and principles which are continually being 
evolved. Scientific management as such is that 
which has been developed and practiced by 
those who approach the subject in a scientific 
manner. Of these Mr. Taylor was the acknowl- 
edged pioneer and leader both in practice and 
theory. 

Scientific management has been variously 
referred to as a new form of industrial organi- 
zation, a new type of administration, a new 

1 Mr. Charles B. Going has published an article ("The 
Efficiency Movement — An Outline," Transactions, The Effi- 
ciency Society, vol. I, p. n), showing the place of scientific 
management in the modern developments of factory organi- 
zation and pointing out the common element in many move- 
ments. 



4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

" system." Again it is said to be a science, an 
art, a set of laws, principles, rules, methods, and 
processes, a policy, or even a set of forms 
and mechanisms. Its significance depends upon 
which of these things it is. 

Industrial organization is the definition, cor- 
relation, and coordination of parts and func- 
tions in a group of elements made up of land and 
buildings, capital and credit, equipment and 
men, adapted to attain the important ends of 
economic manufacture, sale at a profit, and 
growth at least to the point where the effect 
of increasing difficulties of management coun- 
terbalances the possible advantages of further 
expansion. System is the mechanism whereby 
organization performs its functions of admin- 
istration. Administration is the dynamics of 
organization. It is the injection of initiative, 
stimulus, and control into the static system of 
which organization is a cross-section. Rules, 
methods, and processes are names of varying 
degrees of inclusiveness for the prescribed 
procedures in the accomplishment of circum- 
scribed and isolated results. A policy is a gen- 
eralized rule determined empirically by a process 
of trial and error rather than by a scientific 
method of investigation. 

Under these definitions, and in the light of 



WHAT IT IS 5 

observation of the movement in practice, it is 
apparent that scientific management is a type 
of industrial organization and administration 
with a fairly definite system of its own and 
involves the use of rules, methods, and proc- 
esses and, to some extent, of policies, just the 
same as any other type of management. What, 
then, is to differentiate it from others? 

Scientific management in its best manifesta- 
tions may be distinguished from other types of 
management in that it proceeds on industrial 
principles, which may be defined as gener- 
alized rules of conduct based on law, recognized 
or as yet undiscovered, and useful to the attain- 
ment of important industrial ends, such as maxi- 
mum output, low cost, high wages, equitable dis- 
tribution, reduction of unemployment, industrial 
peace. If we define a law as a summary state- 
ment of fact or a description of a tendency com- 
mon to a class of things, then an industrial law 
is any law, physical, chemical, biological, psy- 
chological, economic, or social, which is or may 
be a factor in industrial management. The test 
by which scientific management determines 
whether any law is an industrial law, is the 
effect of that law on economy of production 
or conservation of energy, human or material. 
- What makes a type of management scientific, 



6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

then, is the fact that it rests on laws and principles 
rather than on policies. To be sure, until all 
the laws and principles of management are 
ascertained, it still remains true that policy 
must play a large part and that to that extent 
management remains at least partially an art; 
but the intention and the conscious effort to 
reduce the field of policy and to enlarge that of 
principle and law justly entitle any system 
which holds to it consistently to the name of 
scientific management. 

Thus far there has been no uniformity in the 
attempts to classify and state these laws and 
principles. Mr. Taylor's own statements of 
what he refers to at different times as " prin- 
ciples, " "elements," and "new duties" vary. 1 

Without attempting to state fully the laws 
and principles on which scientific management 
is based, it may be well to attempt at least to 
classify them. The following schema indicates 
the laws grouped under the "Science of Indus- 
trial Conservation " and the principles under the 
"Principles of Industrial Organization." This 
distinction between the science on the one hand 
and the principles on the other has important 

1 For an interesting attempt at systematic statement, see 
an article by Lieutenant G. J. Meyers, Journal of American 
Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 994, reprinted in C. 
Bertrand Thompson's Scientific Management, p. 132. 



WHAT IT IS 



practical bearings, particularly on disputed 
questions regarding the relation of scientific 
management to the labor problem. 

The content of scientific management may 
be indicated schematically in this way : — 



I. Science of 
Industrial 
Conserva- 
tion 



A. Physical Laws 



B. Psychophysical 
Laws 



II. Principles of 
Industrial 
Organiza- 
tion 



A. Group 



kB. Individual 



13 



'i. Materials 

2. Equipment 

3. Processes 

fi. Effort 
2. Habit 
Incentive 

1. Reliance on Law 

and Principle 

2. Functionalization 

3. Balance — Co- 

ordinatio n 
('" exception 
principle") 

4. Harmony — Dis* 

cipline . 

1. Selection 

2. Training 

3. Specialization 

4. Control 

5. Stimulation 
^6. Reward 



As a study of this schema indicates, the laws 
of scientific management are, first, the physical 
and chemical laws covering materials, equip- 
ment, and processes, and, second, the psycho- 
logical laws (undoubtedly operative no matter 



8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

how dimly understood) which govern the indi- 
vidual conduct and reactions of the human be- 
ings involved. The principles of scientific man- 
agement are those which govern the relations 
of individuals to each other in organized groups 
and the methods of procedure by which scien- 
tific management is made effective in practice. 
The Science of Industrial Conservation, then, 
is based on natural laws; and natural laws, if 
accurately determined, are fixed and inflexible. 
They cannot be altered by a majority of votes. 
This is the important distinction between the 
Science of Industrial Conservation and the 
Principles of Industrial Organization. Prin- 
ciples, if they are, as defined, rules of conduct, 
may be changed and in fact are constantly 
subject to modification by consent and agree- 
ment. 

The science of industrial conservation is 
based on physical laws so far as they apply to 
the materials, equipment (including machines 
and small tools), and processes involved in 
industries. Mr. Taylor's work on the compo- 
sition of tool steel and the proper technical 
conditions for securing the maximum output 
from cutting tools, as illustrated in his Art of 
Cutting Metals, is an example. 



WHAT IT IS 9 

The whole field of natural science is at the 
disposal of industry so far as industry wishes 
to utilize it. The participation of human be- 
ings suggests the resort to the vaguer and 
less definite group of psychophysical sciences. 
Scientific management has at least begun to 
investigate the laws of effort both mental and 
physical (as in the study of fatigue), and has 
even gone farther into the much more complex 
field of incentive as illustrated in the effort to 
determine the amount of bonus necessary to 
secure the workman's cooperation in the per- 
formance of a task. Scientific management is 
eminently "practical," and has been somewhat 
timid about applying the results of modern 
psychological and physiological study. This 
timidity will disappear, however, as psychol- 
ogy and physiology pass beyond the stage of 
laboratory experiment into experimentation 
under industrial conditions. There is here an 
excellent opportunity for fruitful cooperation 
between the scientist and the manager, as sug- 
gested and illustrated by H. Miinsterberg in 
his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. 

The principles of industrial organization may 
be divided into those which deal with groups 
of men and those which are concerned with in- 
dividuals. The former refer to the relations of 



io SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

all the individuals in an organization. The 
distinctive features which the Taylor System 
has added to the already current practice are 
those of reliance on law and principle, functional 
foremanship, the " exception principle" in- 
tended to aid in securing proper balance and 
coordination of men, and the principle of disci- 
pline (inherent but heretofore not formally ex- 
pressed) for the conscious purpose of securing 
harmony rather than mere upholding of au- 
thority. This conception of self-enforced and 
fundamental discipline has led to the revolu- 
tionary result that the "men" themselves are 
as insistent on the performance of managerial 
duties by their "superiors" as their "bosses" 
formerly were on the men's "recognition" of 
their "authority." 

In its dealings with individuals scientific 
management lays special stress on the prin- 
ciples of selection to fit the job, individual 
training for their better accomplishment, an 
extension of specialization to the utmost limit 
which the size of the industry permits, de- 
finite and positive control over all processes and 
operations, and the predetermined and con- 
scious stimulation of the men to the greatest 
degree of exertion consistent with their con- 
tinued health by means of a special reward in 



WHAT IT IS n 

the form of a " bonus," a " premium,' ' or a 
''high rate" for superior accomplishment. 

From this classification it will be observed 
that the most distinctive contribution of sci- 
entific management has been in the field of 
principles rather than in that of laws. The 
determination of laws is a long and usually un- 
lucrative process better carried on by "pure 
scientists" in their laboratories for the benefit 
of all possible users than by individual manag- 
ers restricted by a multitude of practical prob- 
lems and interested mainly in their personal 
advantage. Mr. Taylor's work on The Art of 
Cutting Metals, which at times converted whole 
sections of shops into laboratories, is the con- 
spicuous exception which proves the rule. 

On the other hand, the successful adminis- 
tration of a new type of organization absolutely 
requires the determination of the principles on 
which it will be conducted. Starting, therefore, 
with the principle of basing all productive ac- 
tivity on law, Mr. Taylor was compelled to 
work out the principles which have now be- 
come known distinctively as those of scientific 
management. The science of industrial con- 
servation is a free field open to every one cap- 
able of cultivating it, but the principles of 
industrial organization as developed by Mr. 



12 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Taylor are thus far the distinguishing posses- 
sion of those trained, or strongly influenced, by 
him. 

This analysis makes clear the fact that scien- 
tific management is the extension to industrial 
organization of the "positive" movements in 
current thought. The substitution of a basis 
of scientific law and principles for guesswork 
or tradition reminds one strongly of Auguste 
Comte's theory of progress from the "theolog- 
ical," through the "metaphysical," to the 
" positive" or scientific stage of thought. 

It is interesting to observe that "scientific 
management" is "positive management" in 
other senses as well, which flow from its es- 
sentially scientific aim and method. Its ad- 
ministration is marked by the positiveness of its 
control. So far as possible nothing is left to 
accident or to individual judgment. The time, 
place, and sequence of all operations, as well 
as the details of all processes, are determined 
and enforced by the management. 

The result of the application of the science 
of industrial conservation and the principles 
of industrial organization is to develop the in- 
herent resources and capabilities of an organi- 
zation far beyond the average or normal de- 
gree of efficiency. This distinguishes scientific 



WHAT IT IS 13 

management from the current types of " effi- 
ciency systems," which are usually based on a 
variety of cost-keeping built on the methods of 
accountants rather than of statisticians and 
supplemented by superficial observations and 
incoordinated improvements. Their aim is to 
"stop leaks/' "eliminate wastes," "avoid de- 
lays": in other words, to remove a mathemat- 
ical negative and bring an organization to a 
normal standard. The aim of scientific or posi- 
tive management is to carry an organization 
beyond this normal standard and to bring it 
to the utmost degree of efficiency of which it 
is capable: in other words, to accomplish a 
mathematically positive result. 



II 

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 

The time is not yet ripe for the full story 
of Taylor's varied and active life. He was a 
notably two-sided man; on the one hand, a 
scientist devoted to the pursuit of abstract 
truth, and on the other, a highly practical man 
deeply involved in large industrial affairs. His 
work as a scientist, while in the main well 
known, led him into practical applications 
whose details have been to some extent with- 
held from publication for practical reasons; 
while his work as administrator and manager 
involved relations with clients which were 
necessarily confidential in their nature. His 
pioneer work on the advanced frontiers of the 
art of industrial management led him into situ- 
ations of trial and difficulty which would make 
a story of exceeding interest were it possible 
to give it at this time. 

Taylor has himself revealed some of the 
characteristic experiences through which he 
reached his development, but even with his most 
intimate friends it was his habit to maintain a 
high degree of reticence about certain of the 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 15 

most interesting periods of his life. Perhaps 
in the fullness of time the many records avail- 
able in Taylor's effects and the vivid recollec- 
tions and reminiscences of his friends will be 
brought together and made into a volume, 
which will be at the same time a history of a 
highly important development in modern in- 
dustrial life and a fitting memorial to the man 
to whose genius this development is largely due. 

To give at this time a few of the significant 
facts which go to explain and illuminate his 
career and the movement of which he is the 
father, will not require the violation of confi- 
dences nor the divulging of secrets. 1 

Taylor was to a high degree the resultant 
of his ancestors. On his father's side he came 
of a long line of Pennsylvania Quakers. His 
grandfather was a merchant trading with the 
Indies; his father a lawyer. His mother's 
family was typically Yankee. Her father was 
one of the famous old New Bedford whalers, 
who not only attained to considerable wealth, 
but to the distinction of being commissioned 
by the French Government to assist in the 
development of the whaling industry by France. 

1 Much material of an autobiographic nature may be found 
in Taylor's books and need not be repeated here. The history 
of his literary work is given on pages 25, 179-94 following. 



16 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

His mother was one of the leaders in the group 
of women of keen intelligence and independ- 
ence of character who contributed largely to the 
transcendental tone of New England in the 
middle of the nineteenth century. She was an 
early advocate of women's rights. Her home 
was a center of the Abolitionist movement. 
Taylor came honestly by the moral rectitude 
and high regard for truth and the immovable 
firmness of conviction which characterized 
him, together with the apparently paradoxical, 
though really consistent (if you understand it), 
strain of pioneer radicalism. 

Taylor was born in German town, Pennsyl- 
vania, on March 20, 1856. During much of his 
early youth he was at school in France and 
Germany, and before his return to America 
made an extended trip through most of the 
countries of Europe. During these years he 
developed a deep affection for France and the 
French people, and always numbered many of 
his best friends among them. In later years his 
favorite trip for recreation and health for him- 
self and his wife was to the rugged but hospit- 
able coast of Brittany. One of his last letters 
was an appreciation of the heroic efforts of 
France and Belgium to repel the German inva- 
sion in 19 1 4 and the expression of an ardent 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 17 

desire for the ultimate success of the French 
arms. 1 

On his return to the United States he was 
placed in the Phillips Exeter Academy to be 
prepared for admission to Harvard University ; 
an ambition which he was destined never to 
realize, however, on account of the weakness 
of his eyesight. 

One of his instructors at the Academy was 
the famous mathematical pedagogue whom he 
was fond of referring to as "Old Wentworth." 
It was from Wentworth that Taylor got his 
first idea of time study and the assignment of 
tasks. Wentworth would give an original prob- 
lem in geometry to his class, take out his watch, 
and record results. As soon as a student had 
solved it he raised his hand and the time was 
noted. Eventually half of the class had solved 
the problem, and the elapsed time was an indi- 
cation to Wentworth of the number of problems 
he could assign for a normal day's work. 

When young Taylor left Exeter he was un- 
able to continue his studies and undecided 
about the vocation for which he was fitted. 
Active and well-to-do, with leisure and no par- 
ticular aim, he went in strongly for athletic 

1 See Le Chatelier's memorial volume, Revue de Metallurgies 
vol. xii, April, 1915. (Dunod et Pinat, Paris.) 



18 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

sports. During these years he developed a love 
for outdoor games, a skill in playing them, and 
a rugged physique which attended him through- 
out life. At one time he was one of the holders 
of the amateur double tennis championship 
and in his later years stood high in the ranks 
of amateur golfers. Many amusing details are 
told about the curious results of Taylor's appli- 
cation of his scientific methods to this game 
hoary with age. In order to insure an accurate 
grip on the driver and the proper swing, he had 
a harness constructed which made it impossible 
for him to drive otherwise than correctly. At 
the same time, in order to lengthen the drive, 
he had his clubs made extra long, so long in- fact 
that they were ruled off some of the conserva- 
tive old golf links. The head of his niblick was 
made of a coarse rasp file with the rasps point- 
ing upward. While this was rather rough on 
the ball, it at least insured its getting out of a 
hole of any depth. 1 

As soon as he realized his bent toward engi- 
neering work, Taylor got a job as apprentice 
in the shops of the old William Sellers Company 
in Philadelphia. This did not work out to his 

1 One of Taylor's mathematical friends is reputed to have 
devised a slide rule for calculating the strokes and angles in 
billiards, but there is as yet no evidence of his having attained 
the championship thereby. 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 19 

satisfaction, however, and in 1878 he applied for 
work at the Mid vale Steel Company, near Phila- 
delphia. There was nothing open for him except 
a clerkship, which he accepted unwillingly and 
shortly resigned to go to work in the shops as 
a laborer and helper. This connection was 
destined to become decisive in Taylor's career. 
In the course of a few years, from 1878 to 1884, 
he held successively the positions of clerk, 
helper, keeper of tool cribs, assistant foreman, 
foreman, master mechanic, director of research, 
and finally chief engineer of the entire plant. 
In 1880, when the trouble with his eyes had 
sufficiently subsided, he became a student in 
the evening classes of the Stevens Institute, 
where for three years he studied the funda- 
mentals of engineering. 

On this foundation Taylor developed a pro- 
fessional career as engineer and manager which 
eventually brought him to the position of one 
of the world's leading inventors, engineers, 
and administrators. The humble beginnings of 
his development are given in some detail in 
his own books. Until about 1889 Taylor was at 
Midvale. During this period he evolved some 
of the underlying principles of the type of man- 
agement which has come to be known as the 
"Taylor System." Here the methods of time 



20 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

study found their origin; functional foreman- 
ship began to take form; and the experiments 
on the cutting of metals, which later brought 
him fame and wealth, were begun. 

From the expiration of his Midvale work 
to the beginning of his engagement with the 
Bethlehem Steel Company is a period over 
which the veil is still drawn. Taylor was then 
engaged in the development and application of 
his cost system and methods of management to 
a considerable variety of industries, chemical 
and mechanical. His work was carried on under 
the greatest difficulties. Radical and revolu- 
tionary in his methods, he was little understood 
by those with whom he was in constant contact. 
To add to his troubles, he was often in con- 
flict with managers and directors remote from 
the scene of operations, unacquainted with the 
technology of the industry, ignorant of the op- 
erating conditions in their own plants or the 
problems of management which were always 
arising, and even in some instances insisting 
on methods of dealing with employees, sup- 
pliers, and the market, which were inequitable 
and oppressive and utterly contrary to Tay- 
lor's principles. Taylor was consumed with the 
ambition to carry on the experiments he had 
begun at Midvale. The expedients to which 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 21 

he resorted to secure funds for this purpose were 
ingenious and successful as well as strictly ethi- 
cal. One of the considerations on which funds 
and equipments were advanced to him was 
secrecy, and it is this which is largely respon- 
sible for the dearth of detailed information 
about his activities during these years. All 
that can be said is that when he emerged 
again at Bethlehem, he had arrived trium- 
phantly at almost the conclusion of his work 
on the cutting of metals and at nearly the 
final development of the system of manage- 
ment which now goes by his name. 

Taylor's services were engaged by the Beth- 
lehem Steel Company in 1896. There for three 
years, with the assistance of a large and com- 
petent force of engineers, he reorganized the 
management and methods of two of the larger 
machine shops and the foundry, and at the 
same time completed the development of his 
metal-cutting experiments, made substantial 
advances in time-study methods, and did a 
masterly piece of work on the care and mainte- 
nance of leather belting. It was here that he 
finally worked out the formula and method of 
heat treatment for what is now known as high- 
speed steel. The old story that the heat treat- 
ment was discovered by accident through the 



22 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

mistake of a workman is a sheer fabrication. 
High-speed steel is the result of four years of 
intensive study and experiment by Taylor, 
with the assistance of a metallurgist, Maunsel 
White. The work was done by laboratory meth- 
ods of the most minute and painstaking char- 
acter and the keenest scientific training and 
intelligence were constantly brought to bear 
upon it. 

The circumstances under which Taylor 
closed his engagement with the Bethlehem 
Steel Company are not clear. After he had 
been there about three years a change in the 
directors and executive management took place 
and there came in a group who were unfamiliar 
with, and apparently antagonistic to, the meth- 
ods pursued by Taylor and his staff. Whatever 
the details may be, the fact is that Taylor and 
his associates left. During the following two 
years his work was maintained to some ex- 
tent, and then the building from which it was 
administered, and which contained the time 
study and other records which were its basis, 
was burned down. For some time thereafter 
the subordinate officials, who were familiar 
with Taylor's work and in sympathy with him, 
continued it as well as they could ; but eventu- 
ally it became encrusted with a mass of foreign 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 23 

accretions until on the occasion of my visit there 
in 1912 it was barely recognizable. There was 
some evidence, however, even then, that Tay- 
lor's influence had not by any means been 
effaced. I was, in fact, told that a movement 
was under way for the definite reinstatement of 
at least some of his methods. 

One of the plants to which Mr. Taylor went 
shortly after this was a roller bearing concern 
in Fitchburg, of which he gives some account 
in his books. It was there that the present 
typical methods of foremanship and the forms 
usually found in Taylor System plants reached 
their final development. The routing and cost 
systems particularly, as we find them to-day, 
were first seen in operation there. 

In 1 90 1 Taylor was engaged by James M. 
Dodge to systematize the Philadelphia shops 
of the Link Belt Company. Although still a 
comparatively young man, Taylor had decided 
to retire from the active practice of his profes- 
sion, which he was enabled to do by the great 
financial success of his numerous inventions and 
of certain coal-mining operations in which he 
had been financially interested; so he turned 
this work over to one of his former associates, 
Mr. Barth, Taylor himself only supervising 
the development of the system. 



24 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

About 1906 one of Taylor's friends, an engi- 
neer of high standing in his profession who had 
become president and manager of a small ma- 
chine shop in Philadelphia, came to him in 
financial distress and asked for help. As usual, 
Taylor was most generous about giving assist- 
ance, but for two reasons made a condition 
that the plant should be thoroughly and com- 
pletely reorganized in accordance with all the 
principles and methods of the Taylor System. 
One reason — the less important of the two — 
was his feeling that only in this way could he 
be sure of the ultimate rehabilitation and suc- 
cess of the company. The other and controlling 
reason was that this afforded Taylor an oppor- 
tunity to establish an experiment station in 
management methods and a training school for 
young men who wished to learn these methods 
and extend their introduction in other plants. 

For by this time scientific management 
(though it had not yet acquired this name) 
had passed through the stages of a profession 
and means of livelihood, an avocation and hob- 
by, until it had almost become a religion with 
Taylor. In his recent years of comparative 
leisure he had had an opportunity to philoso- 
phize and generalize on his experiences, and the 
far-reaching significance of his principles and 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 25 

methods had dawned upon him and waxed 
until it almost filled his mental horizon. 

During these years since 1901 he had early 
written his now classic pamphlet on Shop 
Management, and in the years following he had 
devoted himself to the propaganda of the move- 
ment. He gave his time and his means freely 
to showing its operation in the Philadelphia 
plant to conscientious inquirers. In many in- 
stances he traveled far at his own expense to 
address associations and meetings of manufac- 
turers and managers. Out of his own pocket 
he contributed to the expenses of young and 
ambitious engineers who were serving their 
apprenticeship in Philadelphia. At the same 
time he was writing his other masterpiece, The 
Art of Cutting Metals, which was presented as 
his Presidential Address when he was elected 
President of the American Association of Me- 
chanical Engineers in 1906. During his incum- 
bency of that office he reorganized its methods 
of administration. Later still, when scientific 
management had become popular, he contrib- 
uted a simplified revision and restatement of 
his principles under the title Principles of Scien- 
tific Management. 

It was during this period that the attention 
of labor leaders was directed to this new de- 



26 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

velopment. Their reaction, unfamiliar as they 
were with the principles and methods of scien- 
tific management, was at first suspicious, then 
actively hostile. Taylor was untiring in his en- 
deavors to make the subject clear to them and 
to show them its actual operation and results. 
In his last years he was often called upon to 
appear before congressional committees inves- 
tigating the operation of the system in govern- 
ment plants. 

It was in the performance of his missionary 
work that Taylor came to his death. He was 
invited to give an address before a number of 
associations in the Middle West. Although al- 
ready worn out by appearances before similar 
associations and numerous committees, he 
accepted the invitation; and when stricken 
with pneumonia en route, his formerly robust 
physique was unable to rally to the emergency 
and he died, after a very short illness, on 
March 21, 1915. 

The regard in which he was held by his co- 
workers, his scientific associates, and the public, 
was indicated by the impressive memorial ser- 
vices on the occasion of his funeral in Phila- 
delphia, which was attended by men and women 
in all ranks of life and from all parts of the 
country, many of them there at considerable 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 27 

personal sacrifice. A year later another me- 
morial meeting was held in Philadelphia and 
similarly attended. 

This brief account of Taylor's career will 
make more clear the curious combination of 
conservatism and radicalism which was found 
in him. He was of the distinctly " hard-headed " 
type. Nothing counted for him except facts, 
at least theoretically, for Taylor was only a 
little more immune than other human beings 
from the coloring which the emotions shed 
over the apprehension of facts. More than 
most others, however, Taylor was free from 
the intrusion of selfish interest. He had no re- 
gard for the effect the ascertainment of facts 
might have upon any personal considerations 
or upon accepted beliefs. It was this conser- 
vatism in regard to truth which led eventually 
to the radicalism of his deductions and the 
methods based upon them. 

He had an Aristotelian confidence in the 
efficacy of facts as a convincing guide to hu- 
man conduct. It was his belief that all action 
is related in a definite way to surrounding 
conditions and circumstances, among them the 
state of knowledge of the actor, and that mo- 
tives may be formulated and reduced to law 
and utilized in the conduct of human affairs as 



28 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

gravity is in mechanics. He was a determinist 
and a positivist. 

While it is doubtless ultimately true that 
all human action is the resultant of definitely 
related forces, it is also true that these forces 
and their relations are so complex and elusive 
that they have, thus far at least, escaped our 
grasp. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, 
that Taylor's deterministic tendencies often 
encountered difficulties and obstacles in their 
practical application to personalities who at 
least thought they had a right to a choice and 
were capable of exercising it. * 

Taylor's ideal of educational discipline was 
that of the soldier, as exemplified at West 
Point. His liking for Germany was confined to 
a great admiration for her military efficiency. 
He was himself a stern disciplinarian ; and when 
persuasion failed, and even self-interest when 
appealed to through the bonus method did 
not operate, he would apply, often with consid- 
erable effect, the "science of profanity," to 
which also he had given attention. 

Neither should it be cause for surprise that, 
with his scientific, hard-headed temperament, 
he at times failed to comprehend the methods 
and motives of men of a different tempera- 
ment. While on the whole he understood very 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 29 

well the psychology of the workingman (so far 
as there is a psychology of " the workingman " 
as distinguished from the psychology of the 
individual), he did not grasp sympathetically 
the aspiration towards industrial democracy, 
nor could he see the point of the current con- 
tention that it does not follow necessarily, from 
the fact that a man can do a certain thing in 
a certain time, that therefore he ought to do it 
in that time. Theoretically Taylor appreciated 
the difficulty of developing a social instinct 
and intelligence in the masses of the people, 
but practically he had little patience with any 
one dense enough not to see what he saw. In 
the same way, he was unable to understand 
the habits, attitudes, and points of view of the 
scholar and the artist, although he was never 
at any time lacking in the keenest appreciation 
for genuine scholarship and artistic attainment. 
He was too intelligent not to realize that 
there was some sort of gap between himself and 
certain of his fellows, To bridge it he had re- 
course to " diplomacy." His diplomatic meth- 
ods and their effects were a source of almost 
as much amusement to himself as they were 
to his friends. With the most kindly interest 
and patience he would endeavor to convey some 
intricate idea, or to express his theoretical re- 



30 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

gard for some movement such as labor union- 
ism ; and the next moment he would be damn- 
ing most efficiently the density of his listener or 
the injustices and crudities of organized labor. 
Such diplomacy was as effective as might be 
expected. 

In his scientific work Taylor displayed a 
characteristic combination of hard-headed re- 
gard for fact and a keen sense of industrial 
and social values. His scientific investigations, 
while marked by the methods and ideals of the 
student of pure science, were always directed 
toward the purely practical end of increased 
production for the social good and increased 
dividends for his employers. 

In science, also, Taylor expanded the fron- 
tiers of engineering practice. His discovery of 
high-speed steel was epoch-making. It is safe 
to say that it has entirely revolutionized the 
whole machine-tool industry, necessitating as 
it did the construction of machines to bear 
much heavier strains than were before cus- 
tomary. His methods of administration also 
had an effect on the manufacture of machine 
tools through the fact that standardization of 
methods and instruction required a correspond- 
ing standardization of feed and speed ratios. 
While at Mid vale, Taylor was confronted with 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 31 

a need for a new steam hammer capable of 
handling sizes of work much larger than had 
been met in current practice. The usual way 
of securing the necessary stability for such a 
hammer was to increase its weight and solidity. 
It occurred to Taylor that stability could be 
secured in another way : namely, by taking ad- 
vantage of the elasticity of the material used 
in the construction of the machine. At that 
time the laws of elasticity were practically un- 
known ; nevertheless, Taylor worked through 
them and on their basis constructed a steam 
hammer of a greatly increased capacity and 
decreased weight, which was completely suc- 
cessful. 

The breadth of his scientific interests and 
attainments is further indicated by the suc- 
cess of his experiments in the cultivation of 
golf greens, and it is said that his knowledge of 
horticulture and fish culture was exceptionally 
complete and accurate. 

This is a temperament which, when in action, 
is referred to as a forceful personality. His 
leadership, whether exercised in the manage- 
ment of an indifferent or hostile force of exec- 
utives and workingmen, or in the control of 
the friends who were associated with him in 
what has become known as the ' ' Taylor group," 



32 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

was of the iron-handed type. He was always 
open to conviction ; but when he had arrived at 
a conclusion based on what he justifiably con- 
sidered adequate grounds, he had no patience 
with an attempt to reopen the question and 
grope again over the field which he had fully 
explored and mapped. At times he showed a 
tendency to an equal permanence of conviction 
on questions with which he was not so familiar, 
particularly those which are the battle-grounds 
of economists and sociologists. Discussions of 
such questions, however, usually ended in a 
modest confession of unfamiliarity with those 
fields. 

For it must not be supposed that the softer 
side was lacking. Taylor was as modest about 
what he did not know as he was firm about 
those things which he knew he knew. He was 
much more modest than are most of his follow- 
ers about the finality of his system. Where they 
have developed a ritual as well as a creed, he 
was content with the creed, and was happy to 
acknowledge any believer as a disciple so long 
as he practiced the Taylor principles, no mat- 
ter in what form they might be expressed. 

He was very free to credit all his associates 
and predecessors with suggestions out of which 
his developments grew and with the contri- 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR \ 33 

butions, often quite substantial, which they 
made to it. In his financial relations, while 
predestined to hard-headedness by his Yankee 
ancestry, he was exceptionally generous and 
charitable. 

Without this softer side to his character he 
could not have had the world-wide circle of 
friends which he was happy to possess. His 
friends were held to him by the full faith he 
had in them, the encouraging support he ac- 
corded them in all their endeavors, the frank- 
ness with which he discussed their problems 
with them, and the sympathy and practical 
helpfulness of his advice and cooperation. 
Among the friends of whom he was proudest 
were many workingmen, laborers, operators 
at machines, straw-bosses, foremen, clerks, 
and others in the humbler ranks. The same 
qualities, even further refined and toned by 
affection, were shown in his home life. 

Some day, when the time is ripe for the full 
story of Taylor's life, there will be revealed 
all the circumstances which moulded the man, 
and at that time, perhaps, it will be possible 
also to show fully the effect which the man 
had on circumstances. Misunderstandings now 
current, due to his reticence and conscientious 
silence and the difficulty experienced by a prac- 



34 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

tical man in the effort to write clearly and to 
speak effectively on intricate subjects before 
none-too-well-informed audiences, to manner- 
isms of speech and gesture, and to the novelty 
of his ideas and methods, will gradually wear 
away. Their place will unquestionably be taken 
by the full and ungrudging recognition and 
appreciation of his fundamentally sound char- 
acter and the great significance of his achieve- 
ments. In fact, even now, the circle of his influ- 
ence is spread around the world. By those who 
know him and his work best he is honored as 
a seer and a prophet, as a " master of those 
who know." 

Taylor has left many followers, but no suc- 
cessor. As the influence of his directing spirit 
has widened, its force has diminished. Even 
during his lifetime the development of schools 
began. There is the original Taylor school 
which adheres to the letter to every form and 
mechanism which Taylor had approved. There 
is another school which allows a much wider 
latitude of methods and claims to devote 
greater attention to the human factor. There 
is still another school which allows so much 
latitude that it can only be called a Taylor 
development by reason of the fact that some of 



FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 35 

its fundamental principles and methods were 
derived from Taylor and are still recognizable 
in spite of the changes they have undergone. 
In addition to these groups there are shoals of 
imitators under the name of "efficiency engi- 
neers,' ' " efficiency experts,' ' etc. 

I do not believe it wise at this time to go 
further into detail on these subjects on ac- 
count of conflicting claims to leadership, the in- 
terference of personal considerations and ani- 
mosities (which had been effectively held in 
check during Taylor's lifetime), and the in- 
creasing commercialization of the movement. 
This will be proper for discussion by the next 
generation, when it can look back with cooler 
and more detached vision upon events and 
personalities which are now warm with life and 
too close to be seen in their right perspective. 



Ill 

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE 

At intervals during the past four years I have 
been investigating the actual working of scien- 
tific management in practice. The results here 
given are derived in the majority of cases from 
personal visits to the plants in twelve States 
and conferences with owners, managers, and 
experts employed. The information in regard 
to the others is derived mainly from the con- 
sulting engineers. 

Information was sought with reference to 
the number, distribution, and types of plants 
to which scientific management has been ap- 
plied ; so much of the history and personality of 
the men engaged as is essential to an under- 
standing of the development of their work; and 
the actual differences in practice between scien- 
tific and other types of management. Atten- 
tion was also given to the results, both in the 
administration of plants and in the conditions 
of individual workers. The possible social con- 
sequences and tendencies involved in the move- 
ment offer a tempting field for speculation 
(which will be cultivated in another part of 



IN PRACTICE 37 

this book 1 ), and a few significant facts bear- 
ing on them were uncovered. In the feeling 
that a study of the failures might be almost 
as instructive as that of the successes, the facts 
in regard to them also were gathered and 
analyzed. 

i. Statistics 

The total number of applications of scien- 
tific management definitely known to me is 
212. This does not exhaust the list, however, 
as there are some cases in which the client is un- 
willing that his connection with this movement 
shall be known, and others in which consultants 
are reluctant to give information. There is an 
uncertain number of such instances, probably 
small, in which either the work has been com- 
pleted or is still in process. 

Of these 212 applications, 4 are to municipal 
work, including three instances of consultation 
and one in which a scientific management ex- 
pert was at the head of a Department of Pub- 
lic Works. Seven deal with railroad and steam- 
ship companies (exclusive of repair shops, 
which are classed as industrial) and 201 with 
industrial plants: 181 factories (including re- 
pair shops of four railroads), 8 public service 

1 See Chapter IV. 



38 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

corporations, 3 building and construction com- 
panies, 3 department stores, 1 bank, 4 publish- 
ers, and 1 professional society. Of these 149 
factories and repair shops are in the United 
States, and constitute practically 1.2 per cent 
of the 12,784 plants which in 1909 employed 
more than 100 wage-earners. The number of 
men in these plants, as nearly as I can esti- 
mate, is about 52,000, constituting about 1.3 
per cent of the 4,115,843 employed in 1909 in 
plants employing over 100 wage-earners. 

The 201 industrial plants included in the 
above classification are distributed as follows: — 

Total United States 169 

New England 53 

Connecticut 14 

Maine 4 

Massachusetts 28 

New Hampshire . 3 

Rhode Island 4 

Middle Atlantic 58 

New Jersey 3 

New York 23 

Pennsylvania 32 

North Central 41 

Illinois 18 

Indiana 4 

Iowa I 

Michigan 8 

Ohio 8 

Wisconsin 2 



IN PRACTICE 39 

Southern 10 

Delaware I 

Maryland 5 

Mississippi I 

Tennessee I 

Texas I 

W. Virginia I 

Western 5 

California 3 

Oregon I 

Washington I 

Alaska I 

Philippine Islands I 

Foreign 32 

Austria 1 

Canada 4 

England 4 

France 5 

Holland 2 

Japan 6 

Russia 9 

Sweden 1 

The most significant classification of man- 
ufactories, from the point of administration, 
is with reference to the complexity of their 
routing and order systems. On this basis the 
plants involved may be divided into two groups : 
first, the assembling industries, such as ma- 
chine shops, repair shops, garment factories, 
of which there is in the United States a total of 
96; and second, the relatively simple continuous 
and intermediate type, such as printing plants, 
foundries, textile plants, of which there is a 



40 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

total of 51. Both these groups may again be 
subdivided with reference to whether they 
manufacture on order only, for stock only, or 
for both. Of the plants of the assembling type, 
19 manufacture on order, 29 for stock, and 
46 for both; while for the continuous and in- 
termediate types, the figures are 26, 19, and 
3 for the same subdivisions, leaving 5 for which 
information on this point is not available. 
The list of about 100 industries involved, classi- 
fied according to product, is given in the foot- 
note. 1 These figures, together with those for 
transportation companies, public service cor- 
porations, municipalities, and miscellaneous 
concerns should dispose of the question of the 
breadth of applicability of scientific manage- 
ment to various types of work. 

1 The following list will be found to differ from that pub- 
lished in the Report of the Sub-Committee on Administra- 
tion of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The 
latter Report included some industries, such as sewing ma- 
chines, brewing, and beet-sugar refining, in which there was 
merely consultation or a report which did not develop later 
into actual work; and others, such as tanks, tin cans, flour, 
leather goods, soaps, and slate products, concerning which I 
have been unable to get further information. 



Agriculture 


Bookbinding 


Agricultural implements 


Book cloths 


Aluminum castings 


Boxes (paper) 


Ammunition 


Box machinery 


Automobiles 


Brass beds 


Axles 


Brass castings 


Banking (clerical work) 


Brass products 


Blank book making 


Bricklaying 


Bleaching 


Building 



IN PRACTICE 



41 



2. Applications of Scientific Management 
Before proceeding to a closer examination 
of the strictly industrial applications of scien- 
tific management, which of course constitute 
the great bulk of those that have been made, 



Buttons 

Canning 

Chains 

Clocks 

Clothing (men's, women's, 

children's) 
Composing machines 
Concrete construction 
Conveyors 
Cordage 
Corsets 

Department stores 
Desks 
Dies 

Dyeing and finishing textiles 
Earthwork 
Electric apparatus 
Elevators 
Engines 
Envelopes 
Firearms 
Food products 

Foundry machines and supplies 
Furniture 
Gas 
Glass 

Gun carriages 
Handkerchiefs 
Hardware 
Hoists 

Import and Export trade 
Iron castings 
Iron and steel tools 
Leather goods 
Light, electric 
Lithography 
Locomotives 
Lumber 
Machine tools 
Mining 
Motors 

Municipal engineering 
Musical instruments 



Optical goods 

Ordnance 

Paper 

Paper pulp 

Paper products 

Power plants 

Printing 

Printing presses 

Publishing 

Pumps 

Railroad cars 

Railroad operation (steam 
and electric) 

Railroad repairs 

Registers 

Rifles 

Roller bearings 

Rubber goods 

Sashes and doors 

Saws 

Scales 

Scientific and professional 

instruments 
Separators 
Ship building 
Ship repairs 
Shoes 
Silk goods 
Stationery 
Steamship operation 
Steel castings and forgings 
Steel products, heavy 
Structural iron 
Textiles 

Textile machinery 
Torpedoes 
Turbine engines 
Typewriters 

Valves and steam fittings 
Watches 
Wire goods 
Wire weaving machinery 



42 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

attention may be called to certain other ac- 
tivities in which some degree of success has 
been attained. Noteworthy among these is 
the work of Mr. Cooke, formerly Director of 
Public Works of Philadelphia, a disciple of the 
Taylor school. This work, made possible by 
the " reform " administration of Mayor Blanken- 
burg, was marked during its three years of 
administration by large savings in the opera- 
tion of that important department of the city's 
affairs. Owing to the peculiarities of the Phila- 
delphia law, and the constant opposition of 
Councils and the previous almost inconceivably 
corrupt state of the department, it was not 
possible to make a thorough application of 
most of the fundamental principles of scientific 
management. The results attained, amounting 
to a saving of over $1,300,000, were due pri- 
marily to the injection of simple honesty into 
the department, and secondarily to the utili- 
zation, so far as conditions would permit, of 
expert knowledge secured wherever it was 
obtainable. Although necessarily a crude ex- 
ample of scientific management it accomplished 
enough to show great possibilities if a suffi- 
ciently long period and free hand were given 
for its completer development. 1 

1 See the following: Annual Reports of the Director of 



IN PRACTICE 43 

The Bureau of Efficiency and Economy of 
the City of Milwaukee has utilized the knowl- 
edge and inspiration of Mr. Emerson in the 
development of its plans; and the Emerson 
Company has also been consulted by the City 
of Seattle and the office of the Commissioner 
of Accounts of the city of New York. 

Though the administration of department 
stores in general is so far behind that of modern 
factories as to constitute the former a partic- 
ularly promising field for the application of sci- 
entific management, very little has been done 
in this branch of business. The actual selling 
of goods presents a problem so complex and 
with so many variables as to raise a question 
about the practicability of a complete appli- 
cation of all the present methods of scientific 
management. However this question may be 
answered, the administration of a department 
store includes many factors besides the selling 
of goods, — such as their purchase, receipt, 
storage, handling, packing and delivery, — 
which are essentially the same as the corre- 
sponding factory problems ; and their costs are 
susceptible to similar treatment. In three de- 
partment stores, to the writer's knowledge, a 

Public Works, Philadelphia, 1912, 1913, and 1914. Business 
Methods in Municipal Works, Department of Public Works, 
Philadelphia, 1913. 



44 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

beginning has been made on this side of the 
problem. 

The practicability of applying some of the 
methods of scientific management — such par- 
ticularly as the handling of raw materials, ad- 
ministration of tool room, and the establish- 
ment of standard times for operations — to 
the work of manual training schools has been 
demonstrated in a technical training school in 
New England, and in the department of en- 
gineering of the Pennsylvania State College. 
Suggestions for the wider application of these 
and other principles to the administration of 
colleges have been made by Mr. Cooke, 1 but so 
far as I know there has been no opportunity 
provided for a practical test of their usefulness. 

Closely allied to the applications in manu- 
factures and forming a convenient transition to 
them is the work done by Mr. Emerson on the 
operation of railroads, and by Mr. Day, one of 
the "Taylor group," on the operation of street 
railways and light and power plants. Owing to 
the complexity of the subject and the intricacy 
of the statistics available, there is dispute over 
the actual value of the work done on the Santa 
Fe and other railroads. Railroad statistics may 

1 Academic and Industrial Efficiency, Carnegie Foundation 
Bulletin no. 5, 1910. 



IN PRACTICE 45 

apparently be used to prove or disprove any- 
thing, and there is evidence of a bias on the part 
of railroad men against allowing any value 
to Mr. Emerson's work. In the absence of an 
opportunity to make a personal investigation, 
I am forced to rely on what seems to be the 
consensus of opinion of judges as nearly unpre- 
judiced as one is likely to find; and this con- 
sensus seems to be that on the whole the work 
was successful in reducing costs and improving 
administration, particularly in the repair shops 
and stores systems, while it was not so success- 
ful in its application to railroad operation. 1 On 
a road where special attention was given to 
increasing freight train loads, the statistical 
report shows a twenty-five per cent increase in 
the average load in one year after the work 
began. The value of this gain is questioned by 
railroad men on the ground that other factors 
supervened during this same period ; but on the 
whole it seems that in this case also the greater 
share of the credit is due to the scientific man- 
agement work. 

What has been done in connection with the 

1 See besides Mr. Emerson's own accounts, those of Mr. 
Charles B. Going, Methods of the Santa Fe ; F. H. Colvin, "How 
Bonus Works on the Santa Fe," American Machinist, vol. 
xxxvi, pp. 7, 165; C. H. Fry, Railway Age Gazette, vol. xli, pp. 
476, 504, vol. xlv, p. 413, and other references on pp. 220-29 
following. 



46 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

management of public service corporations is 
as yet not far enough advanced to warrant the 
formation of final judgment. So far as the ef- 
forts have gone, however, they have resulted 
in a definiteness of control which has made pos- 
sible the stoppage of many leaks of frequent 
occurrence and have contributed to the deter- 
mination of the costs and thereby of the rea- 
sonable rates to be charged for various types of 
service. 

Returning now to the industrial applications 
with which this chapter will be mainly con- 
cerned, it is advisable first to point out the 
differences in practice between scientific man- 
agement and other current systems. These, dif- 
ferences are most notable in connection with 
the handling of labor, standardization of ma- 
terials and equipment, the specialization of 
administration, and the application of the func- 
tional and "exception " principles to the organi- 
zation as a whole. The primary object of the 
system is to increase output, reduce the cost per 
unit of product, and raise the wages of opera- 
tors. This is accomplished : first, by determin- 
ing with the aid of experienced investigators 
the best equipment, materials, and methods to 
use; second, by selecting and training the work- 
men best fitted to accomplish the result desired ; 



IN PRACTICE 47 

third, by determining in advance a standard 
of achievement for the workmen, providing 
them with the necessary working conditions, 
and rewarding them with a bonus for attaining 
this standard. This standard is set with refer- 
ence to standardized conditions, by which is 
meant the determination and adoption of the 
best material and the best equipment obtain- 
able, for exclusive use until a better is found 
and adopted. In accordance with the policy 
of specialization, the workman's activity is 
so far as possible confined strictly to actual 
handling of the machine or tool and of the ma- 
terial only so far as necessary to apply the tool 
to it. All other work is the function of the man- 
agement. This is what is meant by the sepa- 
ration of planning from execution. In order to 
bring to bear most effectively the specialized 
planning functions, Mr. Taylor evolved, from 
the rate-setting department at Mid vale in 
1882 to the full complement of foremen at the 
Fitchburg roller-bearing plant about 1900, the 
method known as "functional foremanship," 
by which such details of administration as 
determination of the sequence of operations, 
machines, tools and methods to be used, time 
to be taken, relative importance of orders, re- 
cording of operations, instruction of workmen, 



48 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

moving of materials, and maintenance of equip- 
ment and tools, are the special functions of 
separate foremen, each of whom is responsible 
for the proper handling of his detail with refer- 
ence to a varying number of men, and all of 
whom bring to bear their specialized knowl- 
edge on each man. This peculiar type of or- 
ganization is in every case supplemented for 
disciplinary purposes by the usual "line" type, 
in accordance with which there is the custom- 
ary grading of disciplinary authority culmin- 
ating in the superintendent or general manager, 
although some effort has been made to special- 
ize this function in the hands of a "disciplin- 
arian." In accordance with the theory that 
the ablest men are or should be the highest in 
the organization, the "exception" principle is 
used (at least in all the Taylor plants) by which 
all matters within the capacity of subordinate 
officials are finally determined by them and 
only such matters as are beyond their scope 
or authority are passed up the line, thus leaving 
the higher officials free to devote their time to 
the broadest and most important problems of 
administration. 

• These methods are characteristic of what 
may be called the original form of scientific 
management as early developed by Mr. Taylor 



IN PRACTICE 49 

and his immediate disciples. Among those in 
the first Taylor group Mr. Gantt has made the 
most noticeable modifications. These consist 
mainly in simplification of forms and in some- 
what less refinement of detail. The existing 
form of organization is left by him as nearly 
intact as the requirements of his central idea 
permit, while a simon-pure Taylorite aims at a 
complete reorganization. In practice also it 
is to be noted that Mr. Gantt sometimes installs 
a system with the aid of his own staff of men, 
whom he moves from plant to plant, while the 
other members of the Taylor group usually do 
their work personally and alone, getting their 
subordinates entirely from within the existing 
organization. 

Mr. Emerson's theory differs from Mr. Tay- 
lor's mainly in the separation of what he calls 
the "staff" from the "line;" Proceeding on 
the same principle, the necessity of accumula- 
ting the science involved in the industry, he or- 
ganizes the experts in a staff of advisers whose 
duty it is to transmit their knowledge to the 
line officers, by whom it is passed to the opera- 
tors and put into effect. In other words, this 
staff has no executive authority, while in the 
Taylor System the executives are themselves 
the experts. Practically the Emerson methods 



50 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

differ much more widely than this from those 
of the Taylor group in that it is Mr. Emerson's 
policy to establish standards of performance 
and a bonus for their attainment as early as 
possible and by methods which are compara- 
tively rough, as will be illustrated in detail 
later in connection with the subject of time 
study. Moreover, Mr. Emerson handles his 
work almost entirely through subordinates, 
among whom are some whose inadequate train- 
ing has led to the majority of failures so far 
scored by scientific management. As Mr. Em- 
erson has expressed it, it is his aim to take a 
plant that is forty per cent efficient and make 
it sixty-five per cent efficient; and, as he .said 
again, the Taylor System begins where the 
Emerson System ends. 

On account of the emphasis laid by certain 
members of the scientific management group 
on the technical and scientific aspects of their 
work, it may be worth while to distinguish 
between the technical and the pecuniary re- 
sults. It would appear that in some cases the 
interest in perfecting a method by mathemati- 
cal and experimental means would tend to 
overshadow the interest in reducing expense, 
increasing output, or improving quality. How- 
ever, a study of the work of the successful 



IN PRACTICE 51 

practitioners shows that their investigations 
have always been guided by financial considera- 
tions, and in fact in the most conspicuous 
cases, as in Mr. Taylor's experiments on metal- 
cutting, have paid for themselves by the savings 
attained. This coincidence of technological 
and pecuniary advantage was evident in every 
plant investigated. 

A more important distinction, however, is 
that between what I have chosen to call " de- 
tailed" and " gross" results respectively. While 
trebling the output of a machine or a group of 
machines at a slight increase in direct labor 
cost may be considered a successful result in de- 
tail, it does not follow from such instances that 
the application of scientific management to the 
business as a whole has been successful. In the 
absence of information as to the total (gross) 
result, there may well be a suspicion of the final 
value of the isolated instances of wonderful 
improvements which have been so frequently 
cited. This total result, however, is particu- 
larly difficult to ascertain. I have found that 
while the owners of private plants have as a 
rule no hesitancy in pointing to individual sav- 
ings and even net results of sub-systems such 
as stores, routing, and task and bonus, they 
are quite chary about the details of the total 



52 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

cost of the system as a whole and the total 
savings and profits attributable to it. I was 
able to get this information in a meager way 
from a few private plants, but the best, most 
complete, and most reliable data on this side 
of the subject are found in reports of General 
Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, on the applica- 
tion of scientific management to the govern- 
ment arsenals. These total results will be 
discussed after the detailed accomplishments 
have been summarized. 

As the central problem out of which Mr. 
Taylor developed his system was the control 
of the output of labor and machinery through 
the accurate determination of what that out- 
put should be, from the study of which all the 
other details of the system grew, it seems logi- 
cal to discuss this feature first. 

The determination of what constitutes "a 
day's work," or in other words the amount of 
output which it is possible for a capable work- 
man to produce in a given time with given equip- 
ment and materials, rests in the Taylor System 
upon elementary time study. This was first 
practiced by Mr. Taylor at the Midvale Steel 
Company in 1882 and is still with some re- 
finements and improvements the central and 



IN PRACTICE 53 

most visibly characteristic feature of the sys- 
tem. Every plant investigated showed some 
evidence of time study, ranging from new rates 
based on recollections of former standards, as 
in the case of the Bethlehem and Mid vale 
Companies, to the most elaborate and com- 
plete records and continuous extension, as found 
at the Watertown Arsenal and in the majority 
of plants now actively developing the system. 
In some industries these studies of elementary 
motions have been carried to such a degree of 
completion as to warrant 'the publication of 
the results. 1 

The most striking differences between the 
original Taylor form and the derived Gantt 
and Emerson forms of scientific management 
are to be found in the practical methods and 
applications of time study. 2 As practiced by 
the immediate Taylor group, a time study is 

1 Thus the elementary times in concrete construction are 
set forth in Taylor and Thompson's Concrete Costs, and similar 
data for the operation of machine tools, gathered over a period 
of thirty years, and for earthwork, are now in process of com- 
pilation for early publication. 

2 See the following articles: Taylor, Shop Management, pars. 
323-408. H. K. Hathaway, Elementary Time Study as a Part 
of the Taylor System of Scientific Management; Industrial 
Engineering, vol. xi, pp. 85-96. Also in C. B. Thompson, 
Scientific Management, p. 520: C. E. Knoeppel, "Practical 
Introduction of Efficiency Principles," Engineering Magazine^ 
October, 1914, p. 61, and further references on pp. 234-35 fol- 
lowing. 



54 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

made by first analyzing the operations of a 
workman on a given piece or on a given machine 
into their elementary motions; second, elimi- 
nating all elements shown to be unnecessary; 
third, determining by any one of several 
methods what is known as a reasonable mini- 
mum time for each of the remaining elements; 
fourth, summing up the elements to get a total 
minimum time; fifth, determining and adding 
to this a percentage of allowance made neces- 
sary by such factors as interference, fatigue, 
and inertia, and adopting this final time as the 
standard on the attainment of which the bonus 
is paid. Mr. Gantt follows the same method 
except that, as a rule, his studies are not so 
minute and the allowance is rather more liberal, 
thus making it easier for the workman to earn 
the bonus earlier and even to go under the 
bonus time. The Emerson method is radically 
different from either of these, in that the analy- 
sis of the complete operation goes down only to 
large groups of elementary motions, on which 
an over-all time similar to that which has been 
determined for years in all kinds of plants is 
ascertained. Emerson's times are expressed 
in minutes, whereas Taylor times are in hun- 
dredths of a minute. From these over-all times 
deductions are made according to the judg- 



IN PRACTICE 55 

ment of the time study man, and the result 
is a standard which the workman is not only 
expected to attain easily but to exceed to a 
very considerable extent. This accounts for 
such expressions as no per cent or 140 per 
cent efficiency, which are possible and have a 
meaning only with reference to the Emerson 
type of time study. 

Obviously the first cost and the difficulty of 
the Taylor method are greatest, those of the 
Emerson method least, and of the Gantt method 
intermediate. In general it may be said that 
the value of the results stands in the same 
proportions, though none of these methods 
is without its peculiar advantages and disad- 
vantages. The less elaborate and expensive 
methods have made it possible, in some plants, 
to secure the advantages of the task and bonus 
idea early in the course of the installation of 
the system and at an expense which is practi- 
cable for small concerns to meet ; while the more 
elaborate methods are comparatively slow and 
costly. The simpler methods have also been 
applied to some types of work where it is diffi- 
cult or impossible to standardize and routinize 
elementary motions, such as drafting and die 
cutting. On the other hand, the most exhaustive 
type of time study insures a degree of accuracy 



56 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

and finality which practically obviates the 
possibility of dispute, provides a stable basis 
of reward from which deviation is not reason- 
ably to be expected so long as working condi- 
tions remain the same, and makes impossible a 
kind of fraud on the management which is fatal 
to the success of the system. 

It is noticeable also that the Taylor form of 
time study requires and secures the services 
of experienced and technically trained chrono- 
metrists, whereas the simpler forms are de- 
ceptively easy and may be and have been 
entrusted to inexperienced and incompetent 
hands. This fact more than any other is re- 
sponsible for a large proportion of the failures 
observed. 

Motion study is an inherent and inseparable 
feature of time study and is constantly prac- 
ticed by every expert chronometrist. In some 
instances it is found that a stop-watch is not 
used at all until a preliminary motion study has 
been made and the operation simplified in ac- 
cordance with its suggestions. The latest de- 
velopment in this field — the use of moving 
pictures with a timing device in the field of 
the picture — has received much publicity, but 
does not appear to have been used to any 
considerable extent, partly on account of the 



IN PRACTICE 57 

expense and partly because it has not demon- 
strated a practical superiority over the methods 
already current. There appears to be a pos- 
sible field of usefulness for it in psychological 
and industrial laboratory work. 

In practically every plant where the com- 
plexity of the work warrants, instruction cards 
of more or less elaborateness are used. In 
many machine shops it is the practice to issue 
to the workman an instruction card containing 
not only directions as to feeds, speeds, tools, 
and major times of operations, but also the ele- 
mentary operations listed in their proper se- 
quence and with their minimum time given. 
In other places I found the list of elementary 
operations is not provided for the workman, 
but he is given the total time and such sub- 
periods as may be useful to assist him in 
earning his bonus. In still other instances, 
where the work is thoroughly standardized, as 
in book-binding and box-making, merely the 
total operation time is given, though in every 
case the total times and sub-times are made 
up in the planning department from the ele- 
mentary data on file there. 

So much has been published in regard to the 
practical results of time study and instruction 
card methods that it is unnecessary to go into 



58 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

further detail here. As might be expected, the 
most substantial improvements have been made 
in machine shop work, where the highly tech- 
nical nature of the factors involved has given 
special warrant for the assistance of expert 
investigators. Nothing is more common than 
instances of twofold and threefold increases 
in output from the same machine and the same 
workman. Larger increases — from seven to 
ten times — are not rare. On the other hand, a 
type of industry which would not appear to call 
for any considerable degree of technical knowl- 
edge, namely bricklaying, has shown equally 
astonishing results, an increase of from 200 to 
300 per cent in the number of bricks laid per 
day having been demonstrated. With machines 
other than machine tools, however, it has not 
appeared practicable to secure such large in- 
creases in efficiency except in the direction of 
reducing the number of men tending one ma- 
chine or of increasing the number of automatic 
machines tended by one man. It is not uncom- 
mon to find one man who formerly tended two 
gear-cutting or screw machines now taking 
care of five ; I have also seen machines requir- 
ing formerly the attention of three men now 
taken care of by two. On the other hand, 
there are instances where the number of ma- 



IN PRACTICE 59 

chines attended by one man was so great as to 
make it impossible for him to secure the maxi- 
mum output on account of the interference of 
one with another. In these instances, of course, 
the number of machines per man was reduced. 
With the ordinary run of industrial machines, 
semi-automatic and each tended by one opera- 
tor, increases of output appear to range from 
30 to 100 per cent — the majority, so far as I 
have been able to find, nearer the lower limit. 
The application of these methods to hand 
operations has shown very variable results. 
The extraordinary differences in efficiency be- 
tween different workers on the same operation 
are already well known to managers. It is 
nothing unusual for even so-called skilled work- 
ers to do not more than one third or one half 
what others on the same work are able to 
accomplish; as, for example, in cigar-making. 
The time study and instruction methods of 
scientific management have increased the out- 
put of hand operators from 10 per cent to 
about 300 per cent, the majority of the cases 
lying between 60 and 100 per cent. Instances 
have been found, as in the case of gold-laying 
in a bookbindery, and in the sole-cutting de- 
partments of shoe factories, where economy in 
the use of material and quality of work were 



60 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

more important than increase in output. These 
factors have been taken into consideration, the 
bonus arranged accordingly, and the desired 
improvement in economy and quality attained. 

It must be understood, of course, that the 
results described do not flow alone from time 
study and instruction. I found that, in ac- 
cordance with one of the fundamental tenets 
of scientific management, the task set for the 
operator was accomplished only with the ut- 
most assistance of the management as repre- 
sented in the stores and routing systems gov- 
erning the standardization, availability and 
moving of materials, and the inspection system 
controlling the handling of defective work. 

Where scientific management is fully de- 
veloped the function of the purchasing depart- 
ment is essentially different from the current 
practice. Ordinarily the purchasing agent has 
the widest discretion as to what he shall order, 
when he shall order it, and in what quantities, 
subject in general of course to the require- 
ments of the business, of which he is one of the 
chief judges. In the Taylor plants the require- 
ments as to quality, quantity, and time of de- 
livery for all materials are determined by pro- 
duction and technical experts in the plant, and 
the purchasing agent buys on orders and speci- 



IN PRACTICE 61 

fications from the factory, exercising his judg- 
ment and discretion mainly on the matter of 
price. The governing considerations are the pro- 
vision of materials for immediate issue when 
required for orders and the tying up of only 
such capital and space as are absolutely neces- 
sary to meet this requirement. In all instances 
of successful application, delay due to the ab- 
sence of necessary materials has been practi- 
cally eliminated. In many cases the variety of 
materials carried has been reduced even to one 
tenth of what was customary before. In almost 
all cases the quantities of certain materials 
have been reduced and of others increased, to 
meet the demands as shown by the record of 
issues. Occasionally, as in the case of several 
large machine shops, this has made on the 
whole a substantial reduction in the quanti- 
ties and value of materials and of the space 
occupied by them. One manager said that he 
now carried one third as much material while 
doing fifty per cent more business. In some 
plants, however, investigation has shown that 
storage facilities and the quantities of materials 
carried were utterly inadequate, and this has 
led in such cases to a considerable increase in 
the storage space including even the addition 
of new buildings and an increase in capital in- 



62 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

vested. This increase of capital was not pro- 
portional, however, to the increase of space, as 
the change meant in such cases greater concen- 
tration in storerooms of materials heretofore 
scattered over the operating area of the plant, 
and was accompanied by a standardization of 
material and reduction of the variety carried, 
which resulted in an increase in the quantity 
of the standard but a decrease in the total of 
all materials on hand. 

Next to having on hand materials to work 
with, the most important factor in efficiency is 
the getting of these materials to the workman, 
together with the necessary tools and instruc- 
tions, in the quantity and of the quality neces- 
sary, at or before the time he is ready to work 
on them. This is the function of what is known 
to scientific management as the "routing sys- 
tem* ' or (in the Emerson form) as the "sched- 
uling" and "despatching" system. Obviously 
the complexity of this system will vary with 
the type of industry. At the one extreme of 
simplicity is the continuous, non-assembling 
industry, such as a sugar refinery ; intermediate 
is such an industry as printing; at the other 
extreme of complexity are the non-continuous, 
assembling industries such as the manufacture 
of machine tools and automobiles. In general 



IN PRACTICE 63 

it may be said that the need of effective and 
complete control increases with the complexity 
of the business. Scientific management has 
thus far been applied in the main to the more 
complex and the intermediate type, as will be 
seen by reference to the list on pages 40-41. 

As might be expected, routing systems of 
varying degrees of elaborateness are found in 
practice. Many plants, such as certain type- 
writer factories, manufacture parts for stock, 
doing only their assembling on order. In such 
cases the routing of parts is easily standardized 
and administered; and the routing of the as- 
sembling is almost equally simple. On the 
other hand, several plants were found which 
manufacture from beginning to end almost 
exclusively on order, with specifications vary- 
ing for each job. Repair shops are extreme illus- 
trations of this. In such cases the routing 
system is necessarily elaborate and complex, 
and yet even in these is valuable, in the opinion 
of the managers, for the very reason that the 
variety and complexity of orders makes all the 
greater the danger of error, waste of materials, 
unnecessary motion, and delay at the ma- 
chine. As the routing system usually involves 
the preparation of separate job tickets, in- 
spection orders, and move orders for each 



64 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

operation, its complexity is again influenced 
by the relative length of the separate opera- 
tions. In one plant or part of a plant the piece 
or the lot may be at a given machine from four 
hours to ten days, as at the Watertown Arsenal. 
If this condition predominates, the number of 
orders to be written and handled is relatively 
small. Such is usually the case in machine 
shops. On the other hand, operations on indi- 
vidual orders and at each machine may be 
very short, ranging down from twenty min- 
utes to two or three minutes, as in a stationery 
concern or a plant manufacturing small electric 
apparatus on orders. Where these predomi- 
nate, the amount of clerical work and handling 
of orders is necessarily relatively great. This 
has in fact presented one of the most serious 
problems that scientific management has had 
to solve. There is usually a choice between an 
expensive completeness of control and a rela- 
tively inexpensive but risky incompleteness; 
and I do not believe it can be said that this 
problem has as yet had a thoroughly satisfac- 
tory solution. Where these conditions exist, 
the routing system of the original type is some- 
times used in spite of its complexity, in the be- 
lief that it is indispensable to the successful 
administration of the task and bonus. 



IN PRACTICE 65 

The intended result of the routing system is 
the complete control of the sequence and time 
of all operations, including moving from one 
operation to another. This result has been 
attained with varying degrees of success. In 
many plants the work in the factory is unques- 
tionably controlled from the planning depart- 
ment, with only such assistance from shop fore- 
men as is necessary to keep things moving and 
to carry out the orders of that department. In 
many cases, however, numerous exceptions to 
this control were evident, ranging all the way 
from leaving in the hands of the foremen control 
of the moving of materials or the assignment of 
work to specific operators, as at the Link Belt 
Company, to the entire administration of whole 
groups of work according to the old methods, 
as in the tool department of an automobile fac- 
tory. In almost every case these conditions 
were said to be temporary, awaiting only the 
opportunity to extend the routing system to 
cover every detail of operation. In a few cases, 
however, it was stated to be a policy definitely 
pursued and to be continued, because either 
of the rapidity or the variety of operations or 
their infrequent recurrence. 

Evidence of the effectiveness of the routing 
system is to be found everywhere where it has 



66 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

been fully developed. Work goes through with 
a speed and certainty unknown to former types 
of administration. In printing plants, where 
practically every order is marked "rush," care- 
ful planning and coordination of work have 
almost wholly eliminated the hurry and confu- 
sion which usually accompanies a preponder- 
ance of " emergency" work. The manager of 
one large plant reports that this result alone 
has justified the installation of his routing sys- 
tem. Waiting for work by the operator has 
been practically eliminated and prompt delivery 
has become a rule in plants which practically 
never before were able to meet a promise date. 
One automobile manufacturer who had devel- 
oped the stores and routing systems, but not the 
task and bonus, said that the routing system 
alone, a most elaborate one, had unquestion- 
ably saved him $535 per car. In other plants 
testimony varies (according to the type of in- 
dustry) as to whether the routing system alone 
has been an economical institution; but where 
these plants have gone on to the development 
of task and bonus, they are unanimous in their 
assertion of its value as an indispensable acces- 
sory to that feature of management. 

With reference to the inspection of materials, 
scientific management differs from other current 



IN PRACTICE 67 

types mainly in its insistence on what it calls 
"first inspection," by which is meant the in- 
spection of the first piece in a lot rather than 
waiting for the entire lot to be finished before 
it is inspected, the object being to detect mis- 
understandings and inaccuracies at the begin- 
ning of the operation and before more than one 
piece has been spoiled. With this has gone in 
most cases an increase in strictness of the final 
inspection also, considered necessary in order 
to counteract the possible tendency to neglect 
quality in favor of speed. In all cases the ac- 
complishment of the task and earning of the 
bonus are contingent upon the satisfactory 
quality of the work. 

An obvious result of the "first inspection" 
has been the reduction of waste; but more far- 
reaching and rather unexpected results have 
followed from the entire inspection system. The 
first of these has been the general improvement 
of operating methods which a rigid inspection 
has suggested and finally brought about, as in 
a box factory, where the close inspection of 
lined board led to an entire overhauling and 
revision of the methods of board lining; and the 
second has been the substantial improvement 
of the product which seems always to have 
marked the development of scientific manage- 



68 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

merit methods. Thus, in one instance an Amer- 
ican plant manufacturing roller bearings which 
heretofore had been unable to compete with 
European makers has so improved the quality 
as to secure a foothold for its product, even 
before the war, in spite of foreign competition. 
One of the first results of the application of 
the methods of elementary time study was to 
make evident the importance and necessity of 
standardized conditions. Time study itself 
suggested means by which the working condi- 
tions of the operator could be made as perfect 
as practicable. A task set for one operator 
under these conditions and offered for accept- 
ance to all workers logically required the es- 
tablishment of similar conditions for the entire 
group. Out of this very quickly grew the policy 
of standardization of materials, equipment and 
plant — a policy which has been systematically 
pursued with rather spectacular results through- 
out the history of scientific management. First 
among these results must be mentioned the 
discovery of high-speed steel by Mr. Taylor and 
Mr. Maunsel White. This discovery was a by- 
product of the effort to standardize the tools 
with which the task was to be performed. 
Many illustrations of the same type of thing 
on a smaller scale might easily be given. Suf- 



IN PRACTICE 69 

fice it to say that almost every plant now using 
scientific management in its original form has 
reduced its main material requirements to spec- 
ifications, and that in many cases these speci- 
fications are for materials standardized and 
improved to meet particular requirements. 

Concurrently with the standardization of 
materials has gone that of equipment. Mr. 
Taylor's work in the standardization of cut- 
ting tools and of belting is characteristic and 
famous, with that of Mr. Barth on machine 
design and also on belting running a close 
second. This work is of course still going on; 
and each new industry and even new plant is 
presenting opportunities brought out by time 
study for the continuous modification and im- 
provement of equipment, the aim being always 
to increase the capacity and endurance of the 
machine and the ease with which it is handled 
by the operator. This extends also to small 
equipment such as trucks and hand tools. 
Usually, however, these efforts have been di- 
rected almost exclusively toward the immedi- 
ately productive side of the plant, while the 
equipment for clerical work has been compar- 
atively neglected — so much so that one is 
rather struck with the clumsy and incon- 
venient mechanisms often found in planning 
departments. 



70 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Because of the policy of scientific manage- 
ment to utilize existing plants to the utmost 
extent and postpone construction of new plant 
as long as possible, there has not been the op- 
portunity for the application of scientific prin- 
ciples to design, construction, and lay-out which 
one would like to see. Nevertheless, one engi- 
neering company has made a specialty of de- 
signing plants in which scientific management 
is to be applied, and has produced a number of 
strikingly successful buildings from the point 
of view of convenient arrangement of depart- 
ments and machines within departments, and 
the utilization of the best means for securing 
light, heat, ventilation, and sanitation. In the 
older plants, however, one is at times surprised 
to find how little attention has been paid to 
these details, with the exception of the ar- 
rangement of machinery, which is usually 
adequately taken care of. Lighting has had 
special attention in a few cases where the 
demand was imperative, and heating and 
ventilation in even fewer still. On the whole 
it cannot be said that these important matters 
have had the attention they deserve. An in- 
vestigator cannot but be unfavorably im- 
pressed by the dinginess and stuffiness of some 
of the plants which in other respects are such 



IN PRACTICE 71 

good examples of modern management. This 
condition is the natural result of the policy of 
owners who insist that all attention be given 
to those conditions which most directly and 
visibly affect the output. It should be said, 
though, that some of the owners of plants 
to which scientific management has been ap- 
plied have realized fully the effect of excep- 
tionally good working conditions upon the 
efficiency of their employees and have accord- 
ingly taken steps which bring them at least 
abreast of other concerns in welfare matters 
and which have the additional advantage of 
being based upon purely business rather than 
charitable or paternal considerations. 

At the same time that scientific manage- 
ment was developing into its present form, the 
subject of cost statistics was engaging the at- 
tention of managers and experts. This detail 
of management in fact spread its influence far 
more rapidly than the more fundamental move- 
ment, partly on account of the fallacious feel- 
ing of useful knowledge that statistics are likely 
to give and the comparative ease with which 
they may be secured. To Mr. Taylor and his 
associates costs, though of course important, 
are secondary to productive efficiency. Mr. 
Taylor was one of the earliest of the profes- 



72 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

sional cost experts, and the cost system that he 
evolved and that is now in use in a few plants 
is as simple as is consistent with effective ascer- 
tainment, recording, and distribution of ex- 
penditures. Without going into technical de- 
tails, one of the distinctive features of the Taylor 
cost system is the use of the forms for the issue 
and movement of materials and for the control 
of operations as the original data for cost keep- 
ing. It is not the practice of scientific manage- 
ment experts, however, to insist on the use of 
this system, provided clients already have a 
sufficiently accurate system in operation. In a 
few instances, however (including a department 
store), I found that the cost system alone had 
been put in with results apparently satisfac- 
tory. 

It has been pointed out many times that the 
principles characteristic of scientific manage- 
ment which have proved themselves capable 
of such successful application to production 
might and should be extended to cover the do- 
mains of selling and financing, with of course 
such modifications of method as the different 
problems presented by these subjects suggest. 
Thus far, however, the merest beginning has 
been made in this direction. One plant, a 
machine shop, has applied to its sales organi- 



IN PRACTICE 73 

zation the principles of analysis of product, 
training and routing of men, and cooperation 
between the management and the salesmen, 
which it had long used in its production depart- 
ment. This is a small concern, however, and 
the methods thus far developed and the results 
attained, though satisfactory, cannot be said 
really to show the possibilities of a thorough 
application on a large scale. 

At least one of the elements of scientific man- 
agement, namely, a detailed analysis of the 
work of the operator with a view to setting 
standards of accomplishment to be made a basis 
of extra compensation in the form of a bonus, 
has been developed with some success in con- 
nection with the sales organizations of a num- 
ber of concerns. The work of the salesmen has 
been analyzed in detail and certain " points" 
value attached to each element. The usual 
wages or commissions are paid and in addition 
the point system is used to insure the sales- 
man's attention to those particular features 
which the management wishes especially at- 
tended to ; and the accumulation of points from 
a basic standard is used as a guide to the pay- 
ment of extra salaries. 

The real test of the success of a system of 
management is not to be found in such isolated 



74 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

examples as have been cited but rather in its 
net effect on the business as a whole. For ob- 
vious reasons it is difficult to get accurate in- 
formation in regard to this from private plants. 
The most detailed exhibit of total costs and 
total results is to be found in the reports of 
the Chief of Ordnance on the application of 
the system to arsenals, particularly those at 
Watertown and Springfield, Massachusetts, 
and the Frankford, Pennsylvania. These re- 
sults show in one year : — 

Savings from improved shop man- 
agement, and premium system. . . $240,461.93 

Savings resulting from the use of sur- 
plus stock 122,789.61 

Total $363 > 25i-54 1 

One private concern, manufacturing mold- 
ing machines, reports that its product is now 
three times what it was before it adopted scien- 
tific management, while its total force has re- 
mained the same. Another is producing slightly 
more than it did six years ago with a little over 
two thirds the force it then had. A plant manu- 
facturing automobiles (already referred to) 
reports that it is saving $535 per car; while a 
car-building concern, in which the application 

1 See Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, United States Army, 
for 1912, 1913, 1914, and 1915. 



IN PRACTICE 75 

of the system had extended only over one year, 
reported already a saving of $100 per car. An- 
other plant which had passed its dividends for 
several years found itself in a position, partly 
as the result of the development of the system, 
to declare a dividend of eighteen per cent. A 
structural iron concern reported that the total 
cost of installing the system, $18,000, was re- 
covered by it in savings effected within three 
years. The results of the application of scientific 
management to the Santa Fe Railroad are 
hotly disputed; but on the whole it seems 
clear that considerable economies were accom- 
plished. 

The gross results, however, are not always 
so favorable. There have been partial suc- 
cesses and unquestioned failures, to say nothing 
of one curious example, a textile machine shop, 
which at the end of three years apparently 
showed a failure but in which a sudden access 
of energy brought about a complete and striking 
success. Failures, as will be shown in detail 
later, have been in some cases due to the finan- 
cial inability of the concern to stand the cost 
of introduction over a sufficiently long period. 
In a few instances this condition was accen- 
tuated by panic conditions as in 1907; in a few 
others the cost was excessive by reason of in- 



76 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

competent "experts" and the setting of tasks 
so crudely as to make possible excessively high 
bonuses. In general it may be said that where- 
ever the development of the system has been 
allowed to be carried through to a conclusion, 
the outcome has been satisfactory; but that in 
some cases the cost of development and the 
slowness of returns have resulted in stopping 
the work long before it was completed. 

3. Effects on Employees 
Thus far we have been discussing the results 
of scientific management from the point of view 
of the employer. A movement, however, which 
has already affected over 72,000 employees (in- 
cluding about 20,000 in transportation in'addi- 
tion to the 52,000 in industrial plants), and 
which bids fair to extend to a much greater 
number, must be considered with equal care 
from the point of view of its influence and ef- 
fect on the workman. Owing to the great num- 
ber of units involved, an exhaustive survey of 
these effects will be out of the question for other 
than government agency. Miss Edith Wyatt 
investigated personally and rather fully the 
effect of scientific management on the woman 
employees in three plants. 1 The House Com- 

i 1 See Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, chap. vn. 



IN PRACTICE 77 

mittee on Labor of the Sixty-second Congress 
made an investigation as the result of a brief 
strike at the Watertown Arsenal, and its find- 
ings are published in connection with their 
report. 1 General Crozier has gone fully into 
the question in his annual reports on the appli- 
cation of scientific management in the arsenals. 2 
My information is derived chiefly from these 
sources, supplemented to some extent by such 
personal investigation as I have been able to 
make. 

First as to wages. In no case that I could find 
were the basic rates lower than those custom- 
ary in the industry and locality involved. In 
every case where the development of the sys- 
tem had progressed to anything like completion, 
the bonus principle was being effectively ap- 
plied. Bonuses are figured in a variety of ways, 
which it is unnecessary to go into here. 3 By the 
Taylor and Gantt methods a considerable de- 
gree of efficiency has to be attained before any 
bonus at all is paid, but when the bonus point 
is reached the amount of premium is compara- 

1 The Taylor and Other Systems of Shop Management. 
Special Committee to investigate the Taylor and other systems 
of shop management. (Government Printing Office, Washing- 
ton, 1912.) 

2 Annual Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, 191 1, 1912, 1913, 
1914. (Government Printing Office, Washington.) 

3 See references on pp. 250-51 following. 



78 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

tively large, ranging from 25 to 100 per cent. 
By the Emerson method a bonus is paid for 
any increase above 67 per cent of the standard 
efficiency on a given job. This bonus reaches 
20 per cent when the standard efficiency is at- 
tained and one per cent is added for each one 
per cent increase in efficiency. The Taylor 
method of time study and task setting makes 
it exceedingly difficult for workmen to exceed 
the task to any considerable extent; while by 
the Emerson method an exceptionally good 
workman is expected to go far beyond 100 per 
cent, and in practice has often done so. For this 
reason the range of bonus earned in the Emer- 
son plants is from zero to 300 or 400 per cent; 
while in the Taylor and Gantt plants it- has 
ranged from 20 to about 100 per cent. 

The proportions of bonus earners to non- 
bonus earners also vary widely, depending 
partly on the degree of completion of the de- 
velopment of the system and partly on the 
policy of the management. It is the general 
expectation of the consulting engineers that the 
bonus will be applied sooner or later to about 
90 per cent of the employees, the other 10 per 
cent being engaged in types of work which for 
one reason or another are not susceptible to the 
task and bonus method. This was found, with 



IN PRACTICE 79 

one exception, to be the aim of the manage- 
ment. That exception was a foundry in which 
the manager explained that it was necessary 
to apply the bonus only to one out of three 
employees, as the increased efficiency which 
this incentive produced in him would compel 
the others to keep up with him. It must be 
said, however, that this is utterly contrary to 
the policy and method of the experts them- 
selves and that, in general, no such method can 
be expected to succeed. In practice it was found 
that where the system had been in operation 
three years or more, there were from 50 to 
85 per cent of the employees earning bonuses 
ranging from 10 to 60 or 70 per cent. In addi- 
tion to this there was at least one plant using the 
Taylor differential piece rate in which the low 
rate is 10 per cent above that prevailing in the 
community, while the high rate is 43 per cent 
higher. 1 

One case was found in Chicago in which the 
bonus system was being abandoned because in 
the opinion of the management the men had not 
sufficient ambition to stir them to take advan- 
tage of it. An investigation showed, however, 

1 See Appendix I, Report of the Chief of Ordnance, United 
States Army, 1913, for tables giving experience at Watertown 
Arsenal. 



80 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

not only that the men were on the whole rather 
shiftless but that the form of bonus offered 
by the management was not calculated to act 
as a powerful incentive. It can be said in 
general that the bonus method, when employed 
in the form recommended by the experts, has 
acted uniformly as a stimulus to increase effi- 
ciency, and that the claim that scientific man- 
agement has invariably raised wages is easily 
substantiated by the facts. 

It is pertinent to inquire, however, whether 
the increased wages due to increased output 
are obtained at the cost of the health of the 
employees. This question also was fully in- 
vestigated by Miss Wyatt, with the conclusion 
that not only was their health unimpaired 'but 
that, on the contrary, the conditions under 
which the maximum efficiency is secured have 
led to improvement in health. The investiga- 
tion at Watertown Arsenal was unable to find 
any case of injuries to health traceable to the 
system. Since that investigation it has been 
alleged that there has been an increase of acci- 
dents at the Watertown Arsenal. The analysis 
by General Crozier shows, however, that the 
increase of accidents has been among those 
who are not yet working on task and bonus; 
while for those who are operating under the 



IN PRACTICE 81 

Taylor system there has been, on the contrary, 
a decrease of accidents. 1 

The attention given to the reduction of 
fatigue early in the development of scientific 
management is familiar to all who have read 
the accounts of the work of "Schmidt," the 
pig-iron handler at Bethlehem, and of the in- 
spector girls at the roller-bearing factory in 
Fitchburg. The necessity of making an allow- 
ance for fatigue in establishing a task is too 
obvious to call for comment; and it is now as 
always an essential part of the work of an expe- 
rienced chronometrist to take this factor into 

1 This point is so important that it is worth while to give 
General Crozier's statement regarding it. "Careful record of 
all accidents is kept at the arsenal. Most of the accidents oc- 
cur in the machine shop. During the fiscal year ending June 
30, 1913, the total number injured in this shop was 34, of 
which 5, or 14.7 per cent, were working on premium at the 
time. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 57 persons 
were injured in the machine shop, of which 13, or 22.8 per cent, 
were premium workers. During these two years the number of 
workmen employed in the machine shop remained about the 
same, but the amount of premium work increased nearly four- 
fold. That is, while the amount of premium work increased 
about 300 per cent, the percentage of accidents to premium 
workers increased only 8.1. During the nine months from 
October to June, 1913, 33 machinists were injured, 10 of 
whom, or approximately 30 per cent, were premium workers. 
During this same period 44.8 per cent of the work in the 
machine shop was premium work. It thus appears that the 
percentage of accidents among the premium workers was less 
than the percentage of premium work; that is, that the greater 
proportion of accidents during these nine months occurred 
among the day workers." {Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 
1913, Appendix I, p. 68.) 



82 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

account, not merely with reference to the mo- 
tions of the operator but with reference to the 
redesign of machines and equipment to the end 
of reducing the necessary motions to a mini- 
mum. The result of this process is well illus- 
trated in the case of a machinist I saw in 
Philadelphia. This man is now operating five 
automatic gear-cutters instead of the two 
which used to be considered his limit. In the 
handling of the gear blanks the worker showed 
a precision and ease of movement resulting in 
the maximum of accomplishment with the mini- 
mum of effort, which is in the strongest con- 
trast to the nervous haste which in most plants 
is accounted speed. Incidentally it may be 
noted that this man is now earning $i I a day. 
One difficulty has been found in a few in- 
stances of over-eagerness of employees to un- 
dertake larger tasks than those proposed, with 
the idea of earning larger bonuses. In two 
plants, employing girls mainly, in which this 
condition arose, operators were allowed to try 
the larger tasks under the supervision of the 
factory nurses. In one instance the new task 
was obviously too great for the operator ; in the 
other, although the operator seemed to be able 
to accomplish it, it was felt that the arrange- 
ment might not be permanently satisfactory ; so 



IN PRACTICE 83 

in both cases they were put back on the tasks 
as originally set. 

The extent to which the interest, loyalty, 
sobriety, thrift, and ambition of employees are 
increased, as is claimed by the advocates of 
scientific management to be the natural and 
usual result of their work, is difficult to deter- 
mine in detail. If one may judge from rapid 
personal inspection of employees at work under 
the system, there can be no question of their 
closer application and deeper interest in the 
work they are doing. This interest extends 
beyond their own work to that of the manage- 
ment. Inasmuch as the success of the worker 
in earning the bonus depends partly on the 
smoothness with which the administrative de- 
partment is conducted, the foremen and other 
executives receive numerous and forceful sug- 
gestions on this score if anything goes wrong. 
I have often seen workmen reminding their 
" bosses," in no uncertain terms, of their fail- 
ure to live up to their managerial responsibili- 
ties. In fact, the authority of the operators 
within their own sphere is one of the outstand- 
ing peculiarities of a scientific management 
plant. 

Perhaps the most striking evidence of loyalty 
of employees under scientific management is the 



84 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

length of time they remain with their plants and 
the relatively infrequent changes in the pay- 
roll. This has further been illustrated in the 
demonstrated difficulty or impossibility of in- 
ducing even union employees in these plants to 
walk out or stay out in sympathetic strikes, as 
was the case in Philadelphia in 1910. With ref- 
erence to sobriety, experience has shown that 
immoderate drinkers are incapable of standing 
up to the work, with the result that they have 
gradually eliminated themselves from these 
plants. Thrift and ambition are qualities which 
cannot be created by scientific management; 
but the opportunity for their exercise may be 
provided by a favorable environment, this en- 
vironment including high wages and the recog- 
nition of superior ability. Such an environment 
is provided by the system, and my observations 
confirm those of Miss Wyatt to the effect that 
the favorable conditions are being taken ad- 
vantage of. On the other hand, there have 
been a few instances where a tendency to ex- 
travagance and dissipation has also been in- 
creased by the bonus. 

An investigator is forcibly struck by the 
notable increase in the personal efficiency of 
operatives who have worked for any length of 
time on task and bonus. This is the logical 



IN PRACTICE 85 

result of the intensified personal instruction 
given them by the management. Another con- 
sequence of this instruction has been the devel- 
opment of employees to the promotion point 
faster than it was possible to find openings for 
them. The condition has occasionally been met 
by finding them better paid and higher positions 
in other plants. Another characteristic result 
has been the broadening of the technical pro- 
ficiency of the employee which follows from the 
method sometimes pursued of training them 
in several varieties of work, in order to inter- 
change them from one department of a factory 
to another to meet seasonal fluctuations of the 
demands in various departments. The possi- 
bilities of this policy have not, however, by 
any means been exhausted. 

While the results just described apply to the 
great majority of workers affected by this 
system, there is no doubt that there have been 
instances of less satisfactory consequences. It 
seems generally true that in the first applica- 
tion of time study methods, the operators 
studied are made considerably discontented 
and " nervous' ' by the process. While as a rule 
this nervousness and discontent soon disappear, 
there appear to be some men who never get 
used to time study. A competent practitioner 



86 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

recognizing this fact transfers his time study 
to some other operator, in which case the indi- 
vidual too nervous to be made the subject of a 
time study usually has no objection later to ac- 
complishing the resulting task. There has also 
been at the beginning of development in va- 
rious plants considerable dissatisfaction with 
the share of the increased profit paid to the 
workmen as a bonus. They have not been able 
at first to see why, if production is increased 
ioo per cent, their wages should be increased 
but 30 per cent. A clear explanation, however, 
of the part taken by the management and the 
expense undergone by it in providing the con- 
ditions under which the increased production 
is alone possible, has in the great majority of 
cases been satisfactory to the employee. 

While the task is set for the average good 
worker, it has purposely been made sufficiently 
difficult to act selectively, and there have been 
employees unable to accomplish it at first 
who in their discouragement have left their 
jobs before they had reached the bonus-earn- 
ing point. In addition to these there are un- 
doubtedly some who were incapable ever of at- 
taining the standards set. Bonus records as kept 
in various plants, however, show that the pro- 
portion of these employees is very small. On 



IN PRACTICE 87 

the other hand, I have been unable to find 
any evidence of overstrain in the effort to earn 
the bonus. 

The question has been raised whether the 
rigid standardization of processes and the pre- 
cise instructions to workmen have not tended 
to suppress initiative, judgment, and progress. 
Strange to say, the only evidence I have found 
of this has been on the part of the consulting 
engineers themselves, with some of whom the 
comparative perfection of methods developed 
ten years ago has tended to preclude the ad- 
mission of the possibility of advance through 
any apparently radical or substantial change. 
With the workmen, however, it is generally 
true that the greater skill resulting from stand- 
ardization and instruction has led to a cor- 
respondingly greater confidence and freedom 
of initiative and suggestion, and many of the 
detailed improvements worked out in practice 
are credited by the experts to the workmen 
themselves. 1 

1 See C. B. Thompson, "The Case for Scientific Manage- 
ment," Sociological Review, vol. vn, p. 315. 



88 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



4. Relations with the Public and with 
Organized Labor 

When we turn from the employer and the 
employee to the third party in interest — the 
public — we find the available data to be quite 
limited, due mainly of course to the compara- 
tively short time that scientific management 
has been a real factor in industry and the rela- 
tively small proportion of plants using it. There 
is sufficient information available, however, 
to point to far-reaching ultimate social effects 
and consequences. At this point such facts as 
we have will be briefly stated and the discus- 
sion of economic tendencies with probable re- 
sults continued in a later section. 

That scientific management has had the 
effect of raising losing concerns into the profit- 
making class and thereby retaining a certain 
degree of competition which might otherwise 
have been reduced has been evident in several 
cases, some of which have already been pointed 
out in our discussion of gross results. 

There is no strong evidence at the present 
time to show that the increased efficiency of 
scientific management has resulted in lower 
prices to the public, for the reason that most of 
those now using it stand in a quasi-monopoly 



IN PRACTICE 89 

position in which there is no necessity for them 
to reduce their prices substantially below those 
of their competitors, notwithstanding their 
larger profits. An interesting question is being 
raised by the fact that public service corpora- 
tions operated under scientific management are 
in a fair way to show unusually large profits 
based on rates which would be considered 
normal for concerns operating by the usual 
methods. Will public service commissions ap- 
ply to these more modern concerns the eight 
per cent rule, thus depriving them of the ben- 
efits of their superior management? The one 
instance in which the public has benefited 
conspicuously by the reduction of price is in a 
very highly competitive industry — the automo- 
bile industry — in which the reduction in the 
selling price of the car was apparently the es- 
sential condition on which the concern could 
live. In this instance a car selling with small 
profit at $2950 has been reduced in price to 
$1950 with a considerable increase in profit. 
The result is said by the company without 
qualification to be due to the application of 
scientific management. 

The one phase of the relations of scientific 
management to the public on which consid- 
erable information is available is that of its 



90 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

relations with the labor problem and more par- 
ticularly with organized labor. The social im- 
port of the general increase of wages through 
the bonus for the individual employee varies of 
course with the number of employees involved. 
Thus far it is safe to say that it has affected 
about 70,000. These are widely scattered, 
however, and no notable social advantage has 
accrued. 

The selective methods of scientific manage- 
ment would appear to have some bearing on 
the problem of unemployment. Thus far it 
has been the consistent policy of consulting 
experts never to discharge an employee on 
account of changes in the system of adminis- 
tration. It is also their policy to spur the 
management to such an increase in its selling 
activity as to take up the expected increase in 
production as rapidly as the latter is attained, 
hoping thereby to retain or even add to the 
number of persons employed. In many cases 
the management has succeeded in increasing 
its sales in the manner and with the result sug- 
gested. In other instances, however, the result 
has been ultimately a decrease in the number 
employed, brought about, not by the discharge 
of employees, but by refraining from filling 
the places of those who in the natural course 



IN PRACTICE 91 

of things drop out. The dropping-out process 
has also been facilitated somewhat by the ap- 
plication of the task and bonus, as a result of 
which those who are for any reason dissatisfied 
with it seek employment elsewhere. 

The net effect of these changes, however, in- 
volving as they do but a small part of the total 
number of employees, widely scattered, and 
resulting from a process necessarily slow in its 
development and carried on by a small num- 
ber of practitioners, is exceedingly slight; and 
it cannot be said that scientific management has 
as yet, no matter what its future influence may 
be, seriously affected the problem of unem- 
ployment. 

The American Federation of Labor, however, 
has devoted a considerable share of its atten- 
tion to what it considers the dangers of scien- 
tific management. The agitation against it 
seems to have originated in the International 
Association of Machinists. In 191 1, Mr. James 
O'Connell, at that time president of the Asso- 
ciation and later a member of the famous 
National Industrial Relations Commission, is- 
sued a fiery circular to his constituents con- 
demning wholesale his conception of the Taylor 
System. The strike of the molders at the Water- 
town Arsenal in 191 1 drew the attention of 



92 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

other labor leaders to the system, and Mr. Frey 
of the International Association of Molders 
and Mr. Duncan, first vice-president of the 
American Federation of Labor, Mr. John 
Mitchell, and many other officials, have since 
taken up the cudgels vigorously. Their oppo- 
sition is aimed primarily at the possible weak- 
ening of the cohesion of organized labor under 
scientific management based on known facts; 
and particularly against the insistence on indi- 
vidual bargaining, which has marked the prac- 
tice of Mr. Taylor and his associates. 

At the Seattle Convention of the Federation 
in 1 91 3 x and the Philadelphia Convention in 
1914, 2 resolutions condemning the system were 
adopted. At the same time a determined' and 
successful effort has been made to introduce 
and pass through Congress a bill to prohibit the 
use of the stop-watch or any premium or bonus 
system in any plant operated by the Govern- 
ment, aimed of course at the Taylor System as 
developed in the arsenals. 

The resolutions and speeches of labor leaders 
and their congressional advocates have thus 
far been marked by a conspicuous lack of in- 

1 See Report of Proceedings, Thirty-third Annual Conven- 
tion of the American Federation of Labor, held at Seattle, 
Washington, November 10 to 22, inclusive, 1913, page 299. 

8 See Report of Proceedings, p. 326. 



IN PRACTICE 93 

formation in regard to the system they are con- 
demning ; and scientific management exponents 
and managers of plants using the system have 
observed a great reluctance on the part of these 
leaders to avail themselves of the opportuni- 
ties frequently offered them to secure at first 
hand the information for intelligent dealing 
with the subject. The exhaustive investigation 
of the House Committee on Labor of the Sixty- 
second Congress resulted in a report recom- 
mending that no legislation 1 be made, as the 
deleterious effects alleged by the opponents of 
the system had not been found in practice. 
The House Committee on Labor of the Sixty- 
third Congress, without an investigation, re- 
ported a bill proposed by the labor unions, 
which was passed by both houses in the form 
of a rider to the Fortifications Bill, prohibiting 
the use of a stop-watch or the payment of 
bonuses in the government works. 2 On ac- 
count of an error of the labor leaders in attach- 
ing this rider to the wrong bill, the payment of 
bonuses was continued. In the Sixty-fourth 
Congress various similar bills were introduced, 

1 Report, Special Committee to investigate the Taylor and 
other systems of shop management (626. Congress, 2d Session, 
House Report 403, 191 2). 

2 See the very interesting debate on this subject in the 
Senate, reported in the Congressional Record for February 23, 
I9I5- 



94 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

and eventually the provisions of a bill fathered 
by Representative Tavenner, of Illinois, were 
embodied in amendments added to several of 
the great appropriation bills. These amend- 
ments were passed at the instance of the unions 
and despite the most serious opposition of rep- 
resentative employers and many employees. 1 

Mr. Taylor and most of the other practition- 
ers of scientific management, while recognizing 
the historical benefit of labor organizations, 
have insisted, thus far, that there is no need 
for them in plants enjoying the favorable 
conditions for labor created by their system; 
and further that in such plants there is no place 
for collective agreements, inasmuch as in their 
opinion all the matters which might be made 
the subject of collective bargaining are matters 
of fact determinable by experiment and not 
subject to agreement or opinion. They insist 
further that in their experience there has been 
no necessity for considering particularly rela- 
tions with labor unions and that such considera- 
tion would only add to the already large diffi- 
culties of their work. 

1 See Hearings before the Committee on Labor, House Re- 
port, 63d Congress, on H.R. 8662, April 17, 18, and 20, 1914. 
See "Method of Directing the Work of Government Em- 
ployees," Hearings before the Committee on Labor, 64th Con- 
gress, on H.R. 8665. Also Report, 64th Congress, H.R. 698. 
(Washington Government Printing Office, 1916.) 



IN PRACTICE 95 

In spite of the fact that many of the plants 
now using scientific management have among 
their employees members of unions, and not- 
withstanding the public opposition of labor 
leaders, the only instance of actual organized 
opposition to the original Taylor System was 
that at Watertown already referred to, where 
the molders walked out during the absence 
of the consulting manager and on account of a 
detail of the work begun without his authoriza- 
tion. This difficulty was soon adjusted, the 
men went back to work and have been working 
continuously since, although in the mean time 
the matter has been taken up by their official 
leaders and made the subject of petitions to the 
Secretary of War * and the agitation in Con- 
gress already described. 

There have been a few instances of "labor 
troubles" in connection with the installation 
of certain derived forms of the Taylor System, 
due in general either to the bungling of a sub- 
ordinate on the job, as in the case of a certain 
plush mill, or to the irreconcilable attitude of 
the union leaders, as in the case of the engineers 
on the Santa Fe. In other plants there have 
been conferences in a few instances between 

1 See Appendix to Report of Chief of Ordnance, 191 3. 
(Government Printing Office, Washington.) 



96 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

the management and representatives of local 
unions concerning details of administration, 
and arrangements satisfactory to both sides 
have been effected. In a few cases the exten- 
sion of scientific management from unorganized 
parts of the plant to other departments highly 
organized has been delayed on account of the 
fear of labor union opposition. In several in- 
stances efforts of organizers to unionize de- 
partments using the system have failed on ac- 
count of the satisfaction of the employees with 
the conditions of their work. In one plant where 
scientific management was fully developed and 
in complete operation, the management, for 
reasons unconnected with the system or with 
working conditions, has itself authorized and 
aided the organization of its employees. In the 
great majority of applications, however, there 
is no attention paid to the question whether 
the employees are unionized or not; and local 
unions conversely have ignored the develop- 
ment of the system. 

That the general satisfaction of the employ- 
ees under scientific management has had a sta- 
bilizing influence in the direction of industrial 
peace has been illustrated in a number of in- 
stances like that already cited of the general 
strike in Philadelphia in 1910. In other plants, 



IN PRACTICE 97 

during the I.W.W. agitation in 1911-12, the 
employees kept themselves well outside the 
drift toward that organization. It is evident 
on the whole that the realization by the em- 
ployees of the fact that scientific management 
automatically provides, at no cost to them, 
higher wages and better working conditions 
than can be shown by labor organization, has 
weakened the hold of the latter upon them. 
When to this is added the instinctive defense 
of the principles of collective bargaining, re- 
striction of output, and uniform wages, by the 
labor leaders and the reaction to a fighting at- 
titude on the part of some leaders in scientific 
management, we have the chief factors to 
which must ultimately be laid the persistent 
opposition of the labor officials. 

5. Failures and their Causes 

It is well known that the efforts to apply 
scientific management have not met with uni- 
form success. The results have ranged all the 
way from absolute failure, by which is meant 
the complete cessation of work on the system 
at any point in its development and the rejec- 
tion of what had Been already accomplished, 
to complete success, by which is meant the de- 
velopment and retention of all details of the 



9 8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

system in their application to at least one 
complete department of a plant. Between these 
two extremes are many cases of partial success, 
by which is meant the development and re- 
tention of some important detail such as the 
stores, routing, or cost sub-systems. 

Of the 113 industrial plants for which infor- 
mation on this point is available, and in which 
the work has progressed far enough to warrant 
the formation of a judgment, 59 may be called 
complete successes, 10 partial successes, and 
34 failures. Twenty-seven of these 34 failures 
are connected with forms of management de- 
rived from and more or less related to the 
Taylor System, which amounts to 42.2 per 
cent of the applications of such forms. Seven 
are connected with the original Taylor forms, 
which represent 14.6 per cent of the applica- 
tion of these original types. Of the 28 cases 
now to my knowledge in process, there is good 
reason to suppose that 22 will be partial or 
complete successes, and that 5. will probably 
result in failures. 

An analysis of the causes of failure shows a 
noticeable concentration about two factors — 
the personality of the consulting engineers and 
the personality of the management. Several 
failures are due to the inexperience and incom- 



IN PRACTICE 99 

petence of the so-called "experts" put on the 
job; others to their lack of adaptability to new 
conditions or to the personality of the owners; 
and still others to an unwillingness on the part 
of the expert to familiarize himself personally 
with the shop operations. In at least two cases 
the experts spoiled their chances of success by 
indulgence in impractical and expensive ex- 
periments. In one instance the wholesale im- 
portation of outside men (made necessary, it 
is true, by the unwillingness of the management 
to provide men from its own staff) was a large 
contributing factor. 
jjf* On the other hand, even more cases of fail- 
ure are due to the management itself. Chief 
among these has been the spasmodic way in 
which owners, without due investigation or 
realization of what the development of scien- 
tific management meant, have rushed into it 
only to begin to vacillate before the engineers 
had had time to produce any substantial re- 
sults. This has been the case particularly where 
the owners have gone into scientific manage- 
ment in response to advertising or other forms 
of solicitation. In a considerable proportion 
of the failures there has been marked dissension 
in the management, notably in certain instances 
where the foremen have for a long time en- 



ioo SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

joyed practical control of the business. This 
condition is fostered also by absentee control, or 
control by financiers or lawyers unacquainted 
with the practice of industrial management and 
therefore unable to adjust the inevitable diffi- 
culties which arise between subordinate officials 
and experts in almost every case. There must 
be mentioned also a few cases where the sheer 
incompetency of the management made suc- 
cess under any system impossible. 

In a fairly large proportion of instances fail- 
ure was due to the financial inability of the 
owners to carry through the development they 
had begun. Occasionally this has been due to 
lack of foresight, but in the majority of cases to 
the supervening of a period of severe business 
depression such as occurred in 1907 and in 
1913-14. In one or two instances this has been 
complicated by the cessation of sales for the 
product manufactured, due either to a change 
of public taste, as in the case of a factory mak- 
ing bicycle roller bearings, or the failure of the 
selling organization, as happened in a garment 
factory. In but one instance to my knowledge 
has the threat of labor difficulties been even 
partially responsible for failure, and here the 
situation was so complicated with financial 
troubles (in 1907) and an unsympathetic man- 



IN PRACTICE 101 

agement that it is difficult now to determine 
precisely what weight should be given to this 
factor. 

As may be expected, these causes of failure 
have in practically every case operated in com- 
binations of two or three or more. The striking 
fact deducible from the investigation is that, 
with one possible exception, the failures have 
been due entirely to the experts or the man- 
agers and owners or both, and never to diffi- 
culty with workmen — and this independently 
of whether the workers were organized or not. 

6. General Influence of the Movement 
A discussion of scientific management would 
not be complete without some reference to the 
influence of the movement outside of its recog- 
nized application. It is safe to say that scientific 
management shares with the modern move- 
ment of cost statistics the credit for the wide- 
spread interest in the improvement of methods 
and details in factories of every type. Cost 
systems are easier to develop and apply than 
production systems. They have, therefore, had 
many more exponents and are far more gener- 
ally found. Their showings, however, have had 
the direct result of pointing out the necessity 
for production systems to eliminate waste made 



102 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

evident by cost statistics; and the two move- 
ments have, therefore, gone hand in hand, al- 
though "production engineering" only now 
is belatedly coming into its own. A brief pe- 
rusal of the many factory and technological 
magazines and journals, and of the proceedings 
of the numerous meetings of manufacturers' 
associations, gives the clearest evidence of the 
large share of attention factory managers and 
owners are now giving to modern production 
systems. 

It is also to be noted that since the attention 
of railroads was so forcibly called at the famous 
Eastern Rate Case hearings in 191 1 to the work 
on the Santa Fe, they have been considering 
with a great deal of seriousness, though with 
little or reluctant acknowledgment, the kind of 
detailed analysis, supervision, and develop- 
ment from a new point of view which was then 
shown to be possible and profitable. This tend- 
ency has doubtless gained in momentum as the 
railroads recovered from the strain of public 
criticism brought out at that time. It is aided 
also by the development of more refined and 
minute cost methods which are only just be- 
ginning to make themselves felt. That the 
systems ultimately developed by the railroads 
will be similar in appearance to those now found 



IN PRACTICE 103 

in factories operated under scientific manage- 
ment it would be rash to assert. But it is safe 
to say that the application of similar principles 
to their particular problems is being made to 
some extent and will be carried to far greater 
lengths in the reasonably near future. 

Certain of the fundamental principles of 
scientific management, such as the economy of 
motion, energy, and time, and the detailed 
control and coordination of the work of or- 
ganization, have made an effective and practi- 
cal appeal to the professions. This is evidenced 
by the movements for greater efficiency in edu- 
cation, legal administration, and even in the 
conduct of social service, churches, and reli- 
gious organizations. 

And, finally, must be noted the radical change 
which the widespread publicity given the sci- 
entific management movement has brought over 
the popular conception of efficiency. Hereto- 
fore the policy of doing one's everyday work 
in the most perfect way has been considered 
a matter of aesthetic satisfaction, an artistic 
pleasure, and therefore to be pursued only in 
accordance with the dictates of one's " tem- 
perament." Now, however, the conservation 
of personal effort is interpreted as an impor- 
tant phase of the broader movement for the 



104 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

conservation of all resources. It is considered 
economically advantageous, and, therefore, a 
personal and social duty. The general accept- 
ance of this attitude will prove, in the long 
run, I think, the greatest social benefit that will 
have flowed from the work of Mr. Taylor and 
his associates. 



IV 

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT 

It may fairly be said after several investi- 
gations that scientific management has suc- 
ceeded in bringing about a lower cost of pro- 
duction, higher wages, and better quality of 
product in the industries to which it has been 
applied. It has also already shown its effect 
in the selection of a different type of managers 
and of workmen from that usually found in 
industry, a higher degree of specialization, and 
a more individual and effective training. These 
are the broad facts on which the following dis- 
cussion is based. 

The questions in which we are now inter- 
ested concern themselves with the effect of 
scientific management on business initiative 
and enterprise and the manager or entrepreneur 
who undertakes the risks. 

Notwithstanding that it is an open question 
whether the effect of scientific management 
upon enterprise and industrial leadership is not 
of more consequence than its effect upon wages 
and the labor problem, the present tendency 



106 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

is to lay all the emphasis on its relations to 
labor, in accordance with the general theory 
that numbers are the most important element 
in a democracy. Nevertheless, something may 
be said for the belief that the cultivation of a 
trained leadership is more advantageous both 
immediately and in the long run to the masses 
of "the people" than may be the surrender of 
such training and leadership in the interests of 
a hazy, ill-defined, and undirected " democracy.* ' 

The interest of society in the encouragement 
of enterprise and the development of compe- 
tent entrepreneurs must not be lost from sight. 
By this it is not meant to minimize the right 
of "labor" to its just share of consideration, or 
even to a share more than mere justice would 
accord, in partial compensation for its historic 
wrongs and its relative weakness. Scientific 
management has in fact interested itself in the 
welfare of the workingman as its prime con- 
sideration practically from the beginning and 
such is the first interest of its leading prac- 
titioners to-day. 

This phase of the matter will receive much 
attention elsewhere, 1 however, and at this 
point I propose to discuss the probable effects 
of positive management on management and 
the owner-manager or entrepreneur as such. 

1 See pp. 116-56 following. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 107 

I. Scientific Management and the 
Entrepreneur 

The effect of the characteristic "exception 
principle," by which only those questions come 
up to the manager and owner of an enterprise 
which cannot be solved by those under him, 
is a tendency to inject successfully into the 
conduct of business a class of trained and 
professional administrators in addition to the 
current type of intuitive " captain of industry." 
In the more usual types of organization the head 
accepts the responsibility, not only for the 
general guidance of his business, but also for 
the handling of a great mass of detail, more, 
in fact, than it is humanly possible to take care 
of adequately. The result is that only the ex- 
ceptional business man survives at all and only 
the type verging on genius achieves success on 
a conspicuous scale — and that largely through 
the intuitive use of the exception principle. 
This principle makes it possible for the average 
man, more especially if he has been trained in 
modern methods of analysis of problems and 
expeditious handling of his personal affairs, to 
dispose of such questions as come before him 
with a far greater probability of satisfactory 
results. 



108 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

I do not mean to convey the impression that 
there no longer remains a place for enterprise, 
initiative, and shrewdness. There is no satis- 
factory substitute for these unfortunately rare 
qualifications. The genius in business, like the 
genius in invention, is still essential to the 
progress of civilization. It is a matter for 
very serious consideration, however, just how 
far these qualities do enter into the success- 
ful conduct of ordinary business. That they 
are necessary to the conspicuous and success- 
ful development of large-scale enterprises is 
undoubtedly true; but it seems probable that 
their importance in the everyday humdrum 
management of medium and small-sized con- 
cerns has been somewhat exaggerated. Many 
such concerns are now operating with apparent 
success, notwithstanding that their managers 
show no evidence of exceptional shrewdness, 
enterprise, or initiative. It may almost be said 
that these qualities have already been sup- 
planted in the majority of instances by the ca- 
pacity for attention to detail, careful analysis 
of not too difficult problems, and a consistent 
willingness to work — which is not genius, not- 
withstanding the well-known definition. Scien- 
tific management tends to develop more of such 
ordinary capacities, thus to increase the num- 
ber of entrepreneurs. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 109 

The new type of management has brought 
about an increasing regard for technically 
trained men. So true is this that engineers are 
exhibiting a tendency to consider themselves 
the only qualified managers. That they are 
becoming more important in management is a 
logical result of the increasing reliance of busi- 
ness on science ; but scientific training of every 
kind, not only in mechanics and chemistry, but 
also in psychology, economics, and business 
itself, has its importance correspondingly en- 
hanced. It may be added that all this is at the 
expense of the favoritism and nepotism which 
still prevails to so large an extent. Grandsons, 
nephews, and old college chums may continue 
to draw dividends, and perhaps salaries even, 
but they are in danger of being retired from 
active participation in management. 
^ What may be the effect of scientific manage- 
ment on competition and large-scale production? 
One reason for the typical modern development 
of industries on a large scale has been the op- 
portunity that is presented only to large-scale 
industry to take advantage of the increased 
f ruitf ulness of the more minute division of labor. 
Scientific management subdivides labor still 
further, and thereby increases the advantage 
which the industry large enough to utilize such 



no SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

subdivision may derive from it. It thus pushes 
farther ahead the stage at which the disad- 
vantages that develop in large-scale organi- 
zation overwhelm its advantages. If the large- 
scale organization succeeds in the application 
of scientific management before its smaller com- 
petitors take advantage of it, the result would 
be to accentuate the advantages the larger 
organization already has and thus to render 
effective competition more difficult. 

The fact is, however, that the large-scale 
organization shows an inclination to rely on 
its size alone to keep the market to itself. Its 
smaller competitor is driven to greater effi- 
ciency of production as well as of financing and 
marketing, and is more likely, therefore, to de- 
velop scientific management before the larger 
and more confident concern considers it neces- 
sary. The early user of scientific management 
pays presumably the same rent and interest as 
his competitors, and although he pays some- 
what higher wages on account of the bonus, his 
cost per unit of product is less, and his selling 
price may be and often is the same as theirs. 
He therefore gets a considerably higher return 
and has a notable differential advantage over all 
his competitors. If his large-scale competitors 
are approaching, or have already passed, the 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS in 

point of negative returns * and are not them- 
selves using scientific management, his advan- 
tage may be great enough to enable him to 
maintain his position and even ultimately to 
drive his larger competitor out. 

In the mean time the advantages that the 
early user has tend to make him, at least to some 
degree, independent of local physical disad- 
vantages where such exist, as in New England. 
It is significant that a proportionately larger 
number of manufacturers in the New England 
States are using scientific management than in 
any other section of the country. The disad- 
vantages of a location in a remote corner of the 
country, far from the sources of raw material, 
must be overcome by superiority of manage- 
ment. The same course of reasoning applies to 
relative international advantages. The absence 
of artificial props, such as a protective tariff, 
may and in fact must be compensated by the 
development of higher efficiency of production. 
The fact that the advantages now derived from 
scientific management are temporary in their 
nature, so far as these considerations are in- 

1 By "point of negative returns " is meant the point at which 
the disadvantages inherent in any development, whose gradual 
offsetting of advantages in such development constitutes "di- 
minishing returns," have overwhelmed the advantages so that 
further growth returns less than its cost. 



H2 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

volved, does not detract in the least from their 
present value. 

These differential advantages persist until all 
plants have adopted scientific management — 
a contingency which in the nature of things 
is not likely to occur. The manager of the 
scientifically managed plant may sell at the 
price set by the poorest and most inefficient 
producer whose output is still needed to meet 
the demand. If he wishes to expand, however, 
he will cut under this price, thus increasing 
the sale of his own product and driving the in- 
efficient producer out of business. The margin 
thus tends to recede toward the more efficient 
producers. If this tendency were to go on un- 
impeded, eventually there would be none- left 
except those using scientific management. For 
various reasons, however, this is certain to be 
a slow process. 

If the fact of diminishing returns in industry 
finds its origin, as I believe it does, in the 
gradual development of the inherent disadvan- 
tages which accompany the advantages of any 
industrial growth, it is pertinent to inquire 
whether the positive type of organization is not 
itself subject to this apparently universal law. 
I believe that it is. 

The development of the science of industrial 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 113 

conservation goes on apace in its early stages 
because the returns from research and investi- 
gation, even when so expensive as those carried 
on by Mr. Taylor, far outweigh the cost. As 
these results are incorporated in current prac- 
tice the research must be pushed farther at an 
ever-increasing cost and in many cases with a 
relatively decreasing return. This is illustrated 
by the fact that a consulting management en- 
gineer is perfectly satisfied to get ninety per 
cent output from a machine. He could, in many 
cases, run this up to ninety-five per cent or 
even higher, but the cost of the last ten per 
cent often exceeds its value. 

A similar consideration applies to the devel- 
opment of control in administration. The ad- 
vantages of centralized planning department 
control are clear enough in the early stages. 
There appears to come a time, however, when 
the increase in supervision, clerical work, and 
printed forms, required for ever-closer control, 
costs more than it is worth. It is difficult to 
say just where this point of negative returns 
is reached, but that it exists cannot be ques- 
tioned. 

Both these tendencies to diminishing returns 
are constantly being offset by the steady flow of 
invention which accompanies the development 



ii4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

of scientific management. Every time-and- 
motion-study-man is an inventor. Minor im- 
provements are constantly being made in the 
technique of mechanical processes and of cler- 
ical work. That they have been worth more 
than they cost is in general evidenced by the 
fact that they continue in use. It is impossible 
to predict how long this flow of invention will 
persist or how far it will go. The one certainty 
is that there is no end to it yet in sight, and 
only by its continuance can the point of nega- 
tive returns be indefinitely postponed. 

One respect in which scientific management 
tends to hasten the onset of diminishing returns 
in organization itself is in its policy of increased 
specialization. The intensive attention to' pro- 
duction forces similar intensive application to 
financing and distribution. At the same time 
there must be closer adjustment of production 
to the requirements of the market, of marketing 
to the capacity of production, and of financing 
to the needs of both. Increased specialization 
is accompanied, therefore, by closer interde- 
pendence ; and the only solution is more highly 
centralized control. Such control demands an 
increasingly higher grade of managerial ability 
and enlarges the risk of failure. The excep- 
tion principle tends to postpone the full de- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 115 

velopment of this tendency, but it persists none 
the less, and unless some other method of coun- 
teracting it is evolved, it will eventually au- 
tomatically put a stop to the extension of cen- 
tralization. 

X It would be interesting to speculate on the 
bearing of these considerations on governmental 
control and on the theory and proposals of social- 
ism; but this would lead us quite beyond the 
limits of this chapter. I will be content with 
suggesting that the objection to government 
control of various degrees up to and including 
a completely socialistic state, on the ground 
that the increasing magnitude of the operations 
involved is beyond the capacity of the type of 
managerial ability now at our command, loses 
somewhat of its force if the type of organiza- 
tion here described could and would be applied ; 
although, in this connection also, the inevitable 
incidence of the law of diminishing returns 
must be kept in mind. It is interesting to note 
that scientific management has been made an 
object of special study and investigation by the 
syndicalist leaders in Italy, doubtless with an 
appreciation of its bearing on the fundamental 
principles of their movement. 

Thus it appears that the tendency of scientific 
management is to enlarge the supply of man- 



n6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

agers and increase the value of the trained and 
professional administrator. While this may aid 
the development of large-scale industry by post- 
poning the point at which negative returns 
will appear, in the case of those industries 
which utilize the system, the present tendency 
and indications are that the smaller-scale plants 
are using scientific management first and are 
thereby strengthening their competitive posi- 
tion. The differential advantage which early 
users of scientific management have tends to 
overcome, at least temporarily, local disadvan- 
tages under which they may labor. 

This advantage tends slowly to disappear as 
an increasing number of plants adopt scientific 
management, partly because the differences 
are equalized and partly because of the devel- 
opment of a condition of diminishing returns 
in the application of scientific management 
itself. 

II. Scientific Management and Labor 

V The most interesting questions connected 
with the effect of scientific management on the 
labor problem are: first, its influence on basic 
wages; second, the probable consequences and 
effect of the method of differential payment by 
means of the bonus; and third, the relation of 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 117 

scientific management to fundamental labor 
union policies and practices.? These will be 
taken up in order. 

1. The Influence on Basic Wages 

Scientific management tends to shift the de- 
mand from labor which is already skilled to that 
which is teachable. It draws its labor supply 
not so much from those equipped with the usual 
store of traditional knowledge and technique 
as from those with the aptitude which enables 
them to respond quickly and effectively to the 
intensive training in the newer methods. The 
effect of this tendency would be eventually to 
abolish the line between " craft" groups. Fac- 
tory labor may to-day be arranged in a hier- 
archy of day laborers, " lumpers," automatic 
machine tenders, helpers, skilled machinists 
and artisans, foremen and clerks. Scientific 
management as actually practiced trains each 
of these grades in a variety of functions usu- 
ally performed by other grades. Thus labor- 
ers may easily become truckmen. Truckmen 
may at a pinch attend the simpler automatic 
machines. Machine tenders are easily made 
into helpers, and helpers into skilled artisans. 
The class of foremen and of clerks is almost 
invariably recruited in scientific management 



n8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

plants from the better men in the lower grades 
of labor. 

The characteristic functionalization in the 
executive positions opens these positions to 
types and grades of ability to which they have 
heretofore been closed. Specialization puts 
these positions within the range of men who 
are competent in executive functions such as 
" getting work through," inspection, or break- 
ing in new operatives, and has made obsolete 
the type of all-round ability (much written 
about but rarely found) which was erroneously 
supposed to be a requisite of the old methods. 
More lines of promotion are thus opened and 
the demarcation between the workmen and 
executive groups tends still further to be oblit- 
erated. 

In short, the effect of these features of scien- 
tific management is to break down the tradi- 
tional lines between craft groups while at the 
same time they develop individual differences 
and individual abilities to the utmost and thus 
establish a new grouping on the basis of in- 
herent and acquired capacity. 

Some economists would say that the aboli- 
tion of craft groups would not only tend to level 
wages by increasing the homogeneity of labor, 
but to lower them on the whole by extending 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 119 

the marginal zone which they say is the con- 
trolling factor until it includes a lower grade 
of efficiency and productivity. Such perhaps 
would be its effect in practice were the tend- 
ency not offset by certain counter- tendencies. 

The first of these is the greater productivity 
of labor in the new grouping due to the positive 
methods of scientific management. This makes 
all grades of labor more desirable for the entre- 
preneur. Or, if you prefer to put it that way, 
it raises the value of the marginal workmen. 

The tendency to increase the number of 
entrepreneurs is an aid in the maintenance of 
higher wages by intensifying the competition 
between them for labor. 

The thoroughgoing development of differ- 
ential abilities in individuals within groups 
clearly brings out inherent differences in effec- 
tiveness and value which are more or less ob- 
scured by current methods of measuring the 
worth of workmen. Considered as "capital" 
on the analogy of instruments (made by man) 
and land, the "rents" for their differential abili- 
ties are more clearly brought out, and the cap- 
italized value of each workman is more easily 
ascertained. As the more keenly competitive 
utilization of land has on the whole tended to 
raise the total amount paid to owners as rent, 



120 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

so it would seem fair to assume that the keener 
competition for workmen and the clearer dif- 
ferentiation in their worth should tend to in- 
crease the total amount paid to them as wages. 

The same differences in inherent capacity 
which tend on the whole to raise the total of 
wages also tend to maintain the higher wages 
paid to the more able individuals, inasmuch 
as the differences which under scientific man- 
agement conditions are important are natural, 
inherent, and practically ineradicable. 

If these propositions are true we can proceed 
to the familiar chain of reasoning to the effect 
that increased wages tend to raise the standard 
of living and with it to decrease the size of 
families. This in its turn decreases the supply of 
labor, which, assuming that its product remains 
the same or even increases, raises its value. In 
this way also exceptional opportunities are 
afforded to children for still further develop- 
ment of inborn abilities and accentuation of 
differences. The net effect of all these is the 
maintenance and progressive raising of wages 
and the standard of living, with their mutual 
and cumulative reactions. l 

To-day it is probably true that the relative 
disagreeableness of different kinds of work has 
little if anything to do with the rates of wages. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 121 

Those rates seem to be determined by a number 
of forces, among which customary standards, 
such differences of ability as may become ap- 
parent under current methods, and the relative 
bargaining powers of employees and employ- 
ers are the controlling factors. The abolition 
of artificial " non-competing groups" and re- 
alignment on the basis of lines of individual 
ability tend to accentuate differences of wages 
due to relative efficiency and would thus seem 
to give more scope to the influence of relative 
sacrifice, effort, or disagreeableness. Too much 
importance must not be ascribed to this pos- 
sible effect. It is mentioned here because it is 
in general agreement with what, as will be 
shown later, appears to be the more or less 
unconscious wage theory of those most active 
in the origination and early development of 
scientific management. 

2. The Bonus Method and its Results 

Most of the current discussions regarding the 
relation of scientific management to wages cen- 
ter about the payment of a bonus or premium. 
It is customary in scientific management to 
offer a premium of some sort in addition to or- 
dinary wages for the performance of the extra- 
ordinary day's work prescribed in the task or 



122 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

schedule made possible by standardized con- 
ditions. This is justified on the ground that it 
is "fair" to pay an unusual wage for an unusual 
day's work ; that it is necessary in order to get 
the workman to accept and utilize standard 
conditions; that it is possible because of the 
superior profits of the entrepreneur using scien- 
tific management; and that it is a just recogni- 
tion of superior qualities. In other words, it 
is justified by its advocates, no matter by what 
ethical theory of wages it may be tested. 

There are those who question the justice of 
the basis on which the bonus is determined. 
That basis is roughly the lowest point at which 
the workmen will consent to accept and utilize 
the standardized conditions provided for them 
and thereby accomplish the task set. Experi- 
ence has shown that for the majority of men 
and in average conditions this requires a bonus 
ranging from thirty per cent to about sixty per 
cent on the ordinary day's wages. They will not 
attempt to do the task for less than this nor is it 
necessary to offer them more. 

But is this a fair compensation for an increase 
of output amounting as in some conspicuous 
instances to two or three hundred per cent? 
Ought not this increase to be shared equally 
with the workmen, or even, as some have put 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 123 

it, to be turned over entirely to them? What 
should be done in the cases, almost as nu- 
merous (except in machine shops), where the 
increase in output secured is less than the bonus 
paid and the bonus is adhered to merely in the 
interest of consistency or because it aids some 
other feature of administration, has not been 
suggested. At least I have seen no proposal 
that the workmen be asked to accept a lower 
bonus on that account ; nor in fact is there any 
likelihood that such a proposal would be ac- 
cepted. 

That the increased output due to the applica- 
tion of scientific management cannot be credited 
exclusively to the efforts of the workmen should 
go without saying; and the theory that the 
workman is entitled to all the increase regard- 
less of the expenditures of the management 
necessary to make this increase possible does 
not call for serious refutation. The basis for 
the division at any amount less than the entire 
increase must be either that of necessity, which 
may be ascertained by test, or that of some 
hypothetical " fairness" about which there is 
no substantial agreement. The test of neces- 
sity therefore has the advantage of being prac- 
ticable and easy to apply. 

Without going into a discussion of the bases 



124 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

of social ethics, I merely state my belief that 
justice and fairness are essentially terms for 
social expediency. In order to secure the exer- 
cise of high managerial ability and initiative it 
seems necessary, as human nature is now con- 
stituted, to insure some certain and exceptional 
reward to the entrepreneur. Unless the man- 
ager gets what he considers a sufficient share 
of the increased productivity due to positive 
management he will not undertake the expense 
and risk of developing the system. It is neces- 
sary, and therefore expedient and just, that 
his share of the profits be at least sufficiently 
large to make it worth while, in his own opinion, 
to undertake this measure of progress. 

Another question, often urged with critical 
intent, is whether, when the present extraor- 
dinary day's work becomes common and or- 
dinary, the payment of the bonus will con- 
tinue to be necessary. In other words, when all 
plants have scientific management, will not 
unscrupulous managers be in a position to cut 
wages to their present levels and to use their 
knowledge of a proper day's output as a more 
subtle, refined, and effective method of driving? 

As long as some plants have scientific man- 
agement and others have not, those which have 
it can maintain their advantage only with the 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 125 

willing cooperation of the workmen. Scientific 
management does not work except with the 
heartiest consent and help of the men under it. 
To maintain this attitude it will continue to be 
necessary to pay the unusual day's wage for 
the unusual day's work. With the establish- 
ment of an ever higher standard of living, the 
practical necessity of maintaining the differen- 
tial reward for differential abilities becomes 
increasingly stronger. 

It is conceivable though hardly probable 
that all plants will some day have scientific 
management. The process of development is 
slow, due to a number of causes which will be 
explained later. Further, it is contrary to all 
historic evidence to suppose that any tendency 
may be permitted to work itself out to its own 
ultimate conclusion unrestrained and unmodi- 
fied. Every movement involves in itself cer- 
tain countertendencies whose force sooner or 
later become so great as to overwhelm the 
original tendency. This is the meaning of the 
"law of diminishing returns," taken in its 
broadest sense. 

If these considerations are not sufficient to 
obviate apprehension, attention may be called 
to the fact that if all plants should have sci- 
entific management the worker's protection 



126 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

would continue to reside in two forces: first, 
the dependence of the manager on the work- 
ers good-will; and second, the individual and 
organized opposition of the worker to any sub- 
stantial reduction in his standard of living. 
Only those familiar with scientific manage- 
ment in operation can appreciate how vitally 
necessary to its successful conduct is the spirit 
of willing, cheerful, and contented cooperation. 
The mechanism of scientific management is 
delicately balanced and may be completely up- 
set by the intrusion of a feeling of unfair treat- 
ment. If this protection should prove insuffi- 
cient, the workman will still have the force of 
established custom behind him, and in addi- 
tion the power which his membership in a 
union, in unionized trades, will continue to give 
him — that is, provided some basis may be 
reached on which scientific management and 
labor unions in their present form may survive 
together. If there is no such basis (a topic which 
will be discussed presently) the chances are 
that labor unionism, at least as it is now or- 
ganized and conducted, will disappear; but 
there will still remain the possibility and per- 
haps the need for some more truly representa- 
tive and progressive type of labor organization. 
Another question often put by inquiring 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 127 

critics is whether the increase of output made 
possible by scientific management does not or 
would not go on faster than the market can 
assimilate, thus leading to the wholesale dis- 
charge of superfluous employees. By way of 
analogy reference is made to the sufferings of 
the chain workers, weavers, and others, and the 
general distress which accompanied the substi- 
tution of power-driven machinery for hand- 
operated tools. No very close analysis of this 
historic episode is usually attempted in an effort 
to determine just what part the introduction 
of power machinery did actually play in the 
economic disturbances of the first half of the 
nineteenth century and what share should 
properly be attributed to the Napoleonic wars 
and other political conditions. It is said, how- 
ever, that after all due allowance is made for 
other factors, one effect of the sudden intro- 
duction of labor-saving machinery was to throw 
large numbers of workmen out of their posi- 
tions and to increase materially the total of 
suffering. Is there anything about scientific 
management to make one hopeful of more satis- 
factory consequences? 

The development of scientific management 
is not parallel to the introduction of power- 
driven machinery. Machinery is something 



128 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

which can be bought in large quantities, in- 
stalled and operated on short notice. All it 
requires is a large market for its product, an in- 
vestment of capital, and a brief training in its 
operation. Scientific management is a type of 
organization and a set of principles which must 
be slowly developed, can be used only by those 
mentally prepared for it, and during the period 
of transition and adjustment can be had only 
from a few individuals whose time and energy 
are limited. It involves on the part of the man- 
agement a mental revolution and on the part 
of the workmen a gradual habituation to new 
methods. 

The number of men capable of developing 
the system is limited, and on account of the 
peculiar abilities and opportunities required 
for the successful prosecution of scientific 
management as a profession the number of its 
practitioners has not increased very rapidly 
nor is it likely to in the near future. Only 
slightly more than one per cent of the plants 
in the United States large enough to warrant its 
development have undertaken it and in no in- 
stance has their increased product been placed 
on the market before the market was prepared 
to take it up without disturbance. 

Instead of throwing men out of work it has 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 129 

thus far meant the more steady employment of 
forces in plants where it is used. There has 
been some redistribution of positions. There 
has been no reduction on account of scientific 
management in the number of those employed ; 
on the contrary, there have been actual in- 
creases recorded. It is safe to say that the 
displacement of workers which may later be 
possible with the more rapid spread of scien- 
tific management will not be comparable in ex- 
tent and influence with that already experi- 
enced in consequence of the access of women to 
men's occupations which has been character- 
istic of the last half-century. 

In order to reduce to a minimum the un- 
avoidable redistribution due to the new methods, 
it is a policy of scientific management, thus far 
consistently adhered to, to insist on the de- 
velopment of sales in advance of the increase in 
production. This may be accomplished by any 
one of several methods whose net result is to 
maintain even employment by spreading pro- 
duction of seasonal commodities over the en- 
tire year and to take up the increase in the pro- 
ductivity of men and machines by putting an 
article of superior quality or lower price before 
a larger market. Although the practitioners 
of scientific management have not themselves 



i 3 o SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

as yet given much attention to the problems of 
marketing and distribution, some of them have 
pointed out the necessity of developing this 
field and by their insistence have secured prac- 
tical results in the way of better methods and 
larger sales. 

It is a truism that in the long run production 
at lower cost per unit tends, after due allow- 
ance for economic friction and variations in 
elasticity of demand, to reduce the selling price 
of the product and thus to stimulate demand 
and to take up the slack due to increased pro- 
ductivity. For a product subject to an elastic 
demand, this would come about automatically 
in an intelligently self-interested and freely 
mobile economic society, such as we do not 
live in. In our present state of development 
intelligence is sometimes overcome by igno- 
rance or inertia. Self-interest may be so per- 
sonal as to override itself and free mobility is 
hedged in by innumerable barriers physical 
and social. With conditions as they are, the 
tendency to an automatic increase of demand 
in response to production at lower cost must 
be stimulated by consciously directed effort 
to extend the market and to reduce the cost of 
distribution. 

It is no reproach to the present group of prac- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 131 

titioners in scientific management that they 
have not attacked and solved the problem of 
distribution. They have had all they could 
handle in the problem of production. But it 
will soon become a reproach to society if the 
principles which have been so fruitful in pro- 
duction are not studied, mastered, reshaped 
and applied to the problem of distribution. 

A criticism frequently aimed at scientific 
management is that its methods tend to destroy 
the skill and initiative which are alleged to be 
the capital of the workingman, thus making it 
more difficult, if not impossible, for him to 
maintain his position or advance out of his 
class. The most superficial observation of 
plants in which the methods of scientific man- 
agement have been fully developed must con- 
vince any fair-minded investigator that the 
criticism is not sustained by the facts. On the 
contrary, in such plants the skill of the work- 
men is on the average far above that of their 
fellows in other establishments; and so far as 
their capacities enable them to participate 
either in technical advances or in the exercise 
of managerial functions, their opportunities 
are better and more freely utilized in scientific 
management plants than elsewhere. 

In the nature of scientific management it 



132 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

could not well be otherwise. Increased pro- 
duction is secured by superior skill, that is, by- 
better acquaintance with the materials, tools 
and methods involved and greater dexterity 
in their manipulation. This is due to two 
fundamental principles: specialization, making 
possible a high degree of attainment in a more 
varied field; and intensive individual teaching 
of scientifically ascertained methods, developing 
the capacity of the workmen to its utmost limit. 
Unfortunately skill is still sometimes con- 
fused with variety of attainment. There is a 
notion that the "all-round" machinist is a 
skilled machinist. The ability to do a good 
many things in a trade half well is apt to be 
considered better evidence of skill than the 
ability to do a few things perfectly. The con- 
trary is the fact. The methods of training 
characteristic of the scientific type of manage- 
ment provide the workman with a measurable 
and demonstrable skill, one of the effects of 
which is to tone up his standard and make him 
dissatisfied with a hazy versatility which is 
unaccompanied with real skill in any detail. 
With such a standard the workman with in- 
ventive ability is enabled in the first place to 
reach the stage of attainment at which alone 
invention is worth while, and in the second 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 133 

place to distinguish with accuracy of judgment 
what invention is useful and practicable rather 
than merely novel and ingenious. 

Initiative, both in invention and enterprise, 
is found in widely varying degrees. In inven- 
tion, initiative of the lower grade is if anything 
all too common. In the vast majority of in- 
stances invention proceeds by very short steps 
from the known to the guessed or desired, and 
is within the capability of any one who will 
take the trouble to familiarize himself with the 
immediate problem in hand. This is being en- 
couraged and practiced every day in scientific 
management plants. It is desirable when it 
leads to improvement, otherwise it is a mere 
hindrance ; and it is about as likely to be one as 
the other. The higher type of invention which 
comes out of the blue, as it were, is extremely 
rare and is epoch-making in its manifestations. 
It is the mark of genius and is not affected by 
any such factor as a type of management. 

Initiative in the sense of enterprise is com- 
paratively rare. Its possession in even a mod- 
erate degree distinguishes the entrepreneur 
from the workman; its presence in highly de- 
veloped form marks off the daring merchant 
or captain of industry or of finance from the 
humdrum manager of a routine business. The 



134 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

tendency of positive management is to provide 
unusual opportunities for the exercise of both 
types of initiative and therefore to encourage 
its manifestation. 

Those whose professional interests cause 
them to be opponents of scientific management, 
and some of their philanthropic and academic 
sympathizers, are fond of alleging that it is 
a speeding-up device injurious to the health 
of the workmen. Extensive and frequently re- 
peated investigations have thus far failed to 
reveal anything to substantiate this criticism. 
On the contrary, the beneficial results which 
might be expected to follow from increased 
wages, steady work, improved working con- 
ditions, conscious attention to the fatigue fac- 
tor, individual training, and the necessity of 
fit physical and mental condition, all of which 
are essential to the accomplishment of the task 
as set by scientific management, have been 
found in fact to follow. The whole aim of 
scientific management is to substitute intelli- 
gent economy of effort for unintelligent driv- 
ing, and such has been its practice. When its 
critics, confronted with the facts, resort (as has 
one, at least, to my knowledge) to something 
in the nature of an intuitive belief that in spite 
of appearances scientific management in some 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 135 

way injures "global efficiency,' ' whatever that 
may be, it is evidence of the survival of a meta- 
physical stage of thought into an atmosphere 
of scientific determination. 

The emphasis laid by Mr. Taylor on the 
value of the " first-class man" has misled many 
people into the impression that the Taylor 
System can find no place for any but the ex- 
ceptionally capable worker. This is due partly 
to a failure to grasp the meaning of Mr. Tay- 
lor's phrase "a first-class man." In scientific 
management a first-class man is one who is 
adapted to the job he is doing, whether it be 
digging a ditch, tending an automatic ma- 
chine, acting as inspector, running a plant, or 
organizing a combination. By applying intelli- 
gence and discrimination to the selection of 
men to fit the individual case and the atten- 
tion necessary to train them to the most ef- 
fective handling of their jobs, scientific man- 
agement aims to make every man a first-class 
man. It must be said that in practice this has 
often been the result actually achieved. Ob- 
viously this is a very different thing from the 
selection of the exceptional man and the re- 
jection of the average. It amounts to the de- 
velopment in the average man of an excep- 
tional fitness for his job. 



136 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

This process has an important bearing on the 
questions revolving around the employment of 
the subnormal and the application of minimum 
wage legislation. At present the weak point in 
minimum wage legislation is the fact that an 
employer cannot be expected or compelled to 
employ people who are not able to earn the 
minimum wage prescribed. Where that wage 
is fairly high, such, for instance, as has 're- 
cently been established in the brush- and 
candy-making industries in Massachusetts, it 
tends to the elimination of all except those 
who by superior capacity and knowledge have 
raised themselves up to and beyond the point 
at which they earn that wage. The employer 
has the alternative either of dropping all not 
yet up to that point or of training them so that 
they are worth the minimum set. Scientific 
management has shown the possibility, the ad- 
vantage and the method of such training. It 
points clearly and demonstrably to the solu- 
tion of the problem how to meet the interests 
of the employees, the employers, and the gen- 
eral public at one and the same time through 
minimum wage legislation; namely, by the de- 
velopment of the efficiency of plant, equipment, 
and employees up to and beyond the point 
where the minimum wage is recognized as a 
reasonable and possible standard. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 137 

The superiority of the results attained by 
scientific management on account of its closer, 
more centralized, better harmonized, defined 
and trained organization as compared with 
the looseness of household and domestic in- 
dustry points to a new means of combating the 
sweating evil. The sweated industries are the 
happy hunting-grounds of the traditional driver. 
Scientific management has demonstrated that 
applied science and the system of industrial 
principles based upon it produce results greater 
than those which follow from driving methods; 
and this has been demonstrated in the gar- 
ment-making industry, heretofore notorious 
for its sweating methods. These results, it need 
hardly be said, can be secured only under 
centralized factory conditions. 

The methods of scientific management also 
have a bearing on the employment of women 
and children. Whether the remarkable in- 
crease in the employment of women in recent 
years is a necessary evil or a blessing in dis- 
guise is not altogether clear. That it has re- 
sulted in grave social loss, both through the 
physical injury to women and to motherhood 
and also through the cutting of wages in com- 
petition with men, cannot be denied. The tend- 
ency of scientific management is to ameliorate 



138 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

to some extent both these harmful consequences. 
In its regard for the physical fitness and welfare 
of its employees, it is less likely to develop or 
tolerate practices whose effect may be person- 
ally and physically injurious. In its accurate 
determination of individual ability and its 
payment of wages in proportion to the ability 
thus determined, it reduces the possibility of 
unfair competition between the sexes. Whether 
a woman is doing as much work as a man is a 
question which may be answered objectively 
and scientifically instead of metaphysically as 
is the present tendency. Whether women are 
entitled to equal pay then becomes a question 
of fact. 

Similar considerations apply in even greater 
force to the work of children. The evil conse- 
quences of that work are greater and more in- 
disputable even than in the case of women. 
On the other hand, its inefficiency relatively 
to men's work is much more obvious. Scien- 
tific management has already shown in many 
cases that it does not pay to employ children. 
It is thus in a position to reinforce, from the 
" practical* ' business point of view, the advo- 
cates of child labor legislation, whose argu- 
ments are usually based on more general social 
considerations. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 139 

3. Labor Unions 

Until recently the problem of the relation of 
scientific management to organized labor had, 
as one of its practitioners said, "merely an 
academic interest." There was no attempt to 
develop the system in closed shops. In other 
shops no one inquired or knew whether there 
were union men or not ; nor, if there were such, 
did they offer any objection to the development 
of scientific management. About 19 10, how- 
ever, or even earlier, in some of the railroad 
brotherhoods, the attention of professional 
labor leaders was directed toward the possibili- 
ties of this type of management. Their reac- 
tion was unfavorable; but except for the refusal 
of locomotive engineers to accept the bonus 
proposals on the Santa F6 Railroad, no oppor- 
tunity to express their organized opposition to 
scientific management presented itself until 
that system was extended to a detail of the 
Watertown Arsenal, which is part of a highly 
unionized branch of the government service. 
This was seized upon by the leaders, apparently 
without regard to the real feelings of the men or 
the facts in the case, as the occasion for a brief 
and insignificant strike and a long train of 
government investigations, reports, petitions, 



140 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

and bills in Congress, whose aim is to discredit 
scientific management generally by setting on 
it the stamp of governmental disapproval. In 
the last Congress this agitation was successful. 
The affair has been of sufficient importance to 
convert the question from one of academic 
interest to one of general industrial and eco- 
nomic consequence. 1 

The traditional attitude of the practitioners 
of scientific management is based on strong 
practical considerations of which they are fully 
cognizant, and on an economic theory which 
is rather implicit in their discussions. In general 
they admit certain historic advantages in trade- 
unionism, such as the gradual shortening of 
hours, the improvement of working conditions, 
and the maintenance and raising of wages. 
They admit that labor organization is still neces- 
sary to secure and maintain these advantages 
in plants not using scientific management. But 
they insist that scientific management pro- 
vides these advantages to the workingman 
more quickly, more certainly, and in fuller 
measure, than the labor organization ever has 
done or can do. Reduction of hours is a not 
uncommon practice under scientific manage- 

1 As is recognized by the fact that the United States Cham- 
ber of Commerce has appointed a committee, in response to 
this agitation, to investigate the subject once more. 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 141 

merit. The standardization of conditions to the 
point of economic perfection is a fundamen- 
tal principle. Wherever scientific management 
prevails, basic wages are maintained as a matter 
of expediency, and are raised by the extent of 
the bonus. These results are brought about 
quickly, and without dispute or trouble. Why 
then, they ask, is labor organization necessary? 

The advocates of scientific management do 
not stop, however, with this negative position. 
They maintain that certain of the present 
principles and practices of labor unionism are 
not only incompatible with the fundamental 
principles and practices of scientific manage- 
ment, but are subversive of the public interest. 
This criticism applies to such practices as re- 
striction of output, insistence on a uniform 
wage, collective bargaining on matters which 
are questions of fact rather than of opinion, 
restriction of membership, and the closed shop. 

Socially controlled restriction of output may 
under some circumstances be advisable, as 
when there is regulation of the acreage to be 
sown in wheat or cotton or of the amount of 
coal to be mined year by year. The move- 
ment for the conservation of natural resources 
is a form of restriction enforced in the broad 
public interest. This is an essentially different 



142 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

matter from privately controlled restriction, 
whether by the entrepreneur or the workman. 
Such restriction may be of temporary advan- 
tage, maintaining profits for a while for the 
entrepreneur and possibly maintaining wages 
and postponing unemployment for a while for 
the workman. Both these results, however, are 
temporary and of individual benefit. Scientific 
management aims fundamentally at the in- 
crease of the national dividend, which any 
form of privately controlled restriction aims 
to reduce. Scientific management, while recog- 
nizing that overproduction may occur as an 
accidental result of unco6rdinated industrial 
activity or of the friction and groping of dis- 
tribution, denies the possibility of real over- 
production in the sense of an excess of consum- 
able goods over the needs of society. Scientific 
management opposes the lump of labor theory, 
and insists that the more economically work 
can be done, the greater will be the demand 
for it and the more highly rewarded the workers. 
And there is no question that increased produc- 
tion at lower cost per unit is desirable, at each 
successive stage, from the point of view of the 
entrepreneur producer. 

Although labor unions are becoming less and 
less willing to acknowledge restriction of out- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 143 

put as a fundamental policy, there can be no 
doubt that such restriction is their constant 
practice and that in the back of their heads 
it is their final answer to the problem of un- 
employment. For the individual workman in 
the individual plant much is to be said for their 
theory. If the plant has orders for a hundred 
units, the men's jobs will last ten times as long 
if they take ten days instead of one day each 
per unit. The broader social consequences of 
this type of restriction work out slowly and 
react only in the most obscure ways on those 
who practice it, while its immediate personal 
consequences are obvious and apparently ad- 
vantageous. Even if the workman sees the 
ultimate social disadvantage of this policy, he 
can hardly be expected to sacrifice his present 
personal advantage to a remote social good. 

Inasmuch, however, as one of the funda- 
mental aims of scientific management, and a 
necessary result of all its practices and meth- 
ods, is the increase of output, there is here, in 
the absence of centralized social control of pro- 
duction, an irreconcilable conflict. It would 
appear that the ultimate social as well as the 
immediate industrial advantage is on the side 
of scientific management, and that, as it can- 
not surrender its fundamental principles, it 



i 4 4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

must continue to educate society to the advan- 
tages of large output and to fight all efforts to 
restrict it. 

There is an equally fundamental conflict be- 
tween the trade-union principle of a uniform 
wage based on class similarity and the scientific 
management principle of a differential wage for 
differential abilities. 

Scientific management accepts the wage cur- 
rent in the community as its basic wage, and so 
long as general conditions remain substantially 
the same, considers that this wage should be 
paid uniformly to all workmen for an ordi- 
nary day's work. Some of its practitioners 
may question theoretically the justice of these 
current rates. While their theories have ap- 
parently not been thoroughly reasoned out nor 
stated with any great clearness, there appears 
to be among them a feeling that basic wages 
should be related to each other in proportion 
to the disagreeableness, sacrifice, or "cost" 
of different occupations, scientifically deter- 
mined. One proposes that this determination 
shall be on the basis of foot pounds of energy 
expended, another on an estimate of the relative 
total disagreeableness or irksomeness of jobs. 
These theories are not pressed very insistently, 
however, nor is there much tendency to ques- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 145 

tion the justice of the current rates. On the 
whole they are felt to depend upon some rather 
hazy "law of supply and demand"; and in any 
case the validity of this law, if there is any, is 
outside the practical scope of a scientific man- 
ager's business. He accepts current wages as 
they are, as the basis on which to build a dif- 
ferential payment for differences in ability. 

For on the theory express or implied that 
wages should be proportionate to productive 
efficiency, it is agreed among all scientific man- 
agement experts that it is both just and neces- 
sary to pay more than an ordinary day's wage 
for an extraordinary day's accomplishment such 
as is made feasible by their methods. It is 
necessary, as already explained, because other- 
wise the workmen will not perform the unusual 
day's work. It is just, because it tends to 
encourage the exercise of superior abilities to 
the ultimate benefit of society; whereas a uni- 
form wage tends to reduce the effort of all men, 
whatever their capacity may be, to the level 
of the least efficient man who receives the uni- 
form wage. There is also a feeling, scarcely 
reasoned out or defined, that the workman 
should in some way share in the increased 
product secured at least in part through his 
efforts. In any case there is a thorough con- 



146 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

viction that differential wages are essential to 
the practice of scientific management and that 
therefore the trade-union principle and practice 
of uniformity is absolutely unacceptable. 

The objection of scientific management to 
collective bargaining rests theoretically on the 
incompatibility between bargaining and the 
accurate scientific determination of facts, and 
practically on the numerous difficulties thrown 
in the way of the reorganization of a plant by 
recognition of labor unions as at present led and 
conducted. Scientific management endeavors 
to build up the principles of industrial organi- 
zation as well as the science of industrial con- 
servation upon a basis of ascertained fact, 
where possible; and it declines to admit that 
any facts pertinent to the discussion are not 
ascertainable. Bargaining implies difference of 
opinion and compromise until a basis of agree- 
ment is reached. You do not bargain about or 
vote on scientific facts. If the ideals of scien- 
tific management are realized, therefore, the 
field left open for collective bargaining is nar- 
rowed to those matters which cannot be, or at 
least have not been, reduced to law. 

In the opinion of some this eliminates alto- 
gether the possibility of collective bargaining; 
for they believe there is no factor, not even the 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 147 

basic wage rate, which cannot be reduced to 
accurate scientific determination, even if such 
determination is only the resultant of an un- 
analyzed "law of supply and demand." Others 
(of whom I am one) believe that while the basic 
wage rate is doubtless determined by some law, 
natural or social, the law has not yet been 
accurately and comprehensively defined; and 
that therefore, theoretically at least, the basic 
rate of wages may be a subject of bargaining. 
But there is complete agreement that such 
matters as the process to be used, or the time 
which it should take to perform a given piece 
of work, and the amount of bonus which is to 
be paid for its performance within a standard 
time, are questions of fact, and therefore not 
in any sense subject to collective bargaining. 

More important, however, than the theoreti- 
cal consideration is the circumstance that col- 
lective bargaining under existing conditions 
requires a recognition of the union and thereby 
brings in its train a series of difficulties and 
conflicts which might be avoided altogether 
by consistent refusal to deal with organized 
labor. The bargain on basic wage rates, even 
though theoretically consistent with scientific 
management, does in fact involve many details 
of organization such as the length of the work- 



148 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

ing day, the employment of men or women or 
children, and the determination of what consti- 
tutes the (customarily ordinary) day's work. 
Further, such a bargain opens the way to 
"dickering" over many other details, such as 
the degree of specialization to be required, the 
functions and authority of minor executives, 
the principles governing inspection, and the 
reduction of defective workmanship. All sci- 
entific managers will testify that at best the 
difficulties of their work are extreme, not to 
say heartbreaking. To complicate them with 
the necessity of conferring with committees of 
workmen, not in the slightest degree familiar 
with the principles of management or the de- 
tails as they are being worked out in the plant 
under process of systematizing, would be well- 
nigh fatal. 

To this difficulty must be added the well- 
grounded fear of abuse of the striking power 
of organized labor. Whatever may be said in 
favor of the strike as a weapon to secure, under 
the current types of management, the reason- 
able demands of the workmen for shorter hours, 
higher pay, or better conditions, it is difficult, 
if not impossible, to justify the sympathetic 
strike, and its even worse variety, the strike 
that grows out of jurisdictional disputes. The 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 149 

manager, who by reason of his standardization 
of conditions, payment of higher wages, fair 
treatment of his employees, and development 
of a type of organization which renders juris- 
dictional disputes almost meaningless, has re- 
moved practically all the tenable grounds for 
striking, is justified in his fear of mere sympa- 
thetic and jurisdictional strikes. 

The manager's aversion to recognizing a 
union is still further intensified by his distrust 
of the type of leadership which is characteristic 
of much of American labor organization to-day. 
Even its friends must admit that the American 
Federation of Labor is governed and controlled 
by a type of leadership marked rather more by 
political ability (in the objectionable sense) 
than by a broad-minded, socially trained public 
spirit; and one may even question whether it 
displays a keenly intelligent and sympathetic 
interest in the ultimate welfare of the working- 
men. The proceedings of its national conven- 
tions are often marked by a short-sighted 
selfishness and disregard of social considerations 
which is the mark of the self-seeking politician. 
It is said, and it is doubtless true, that ex- 
ceptions must be made to this general judg- 
ment of current labor leadership ; but that it is 
substantially accurate cannot be denied by any 



150 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

one who is more interested in the ascertainment 
of facts than in permitting the substitution of a 
good intention for an unfortunate reality. 

A great many union men are now working in 
scientific management plants. The organized 
complaint against this system which has had 
so much publicity comes from an insignificant 
fraction of the union men actually working 
under it, and there is at least reasonable ground 
to believe that the real feeling of even that 
fraction is misrepresented in the complaints 
officially emanating from them. If this is true, 
it is but a testimony to the fundamental rea- 
sonableness and intelligence of the average 
workingman. The practitioners of scientific 
management have every means of knowing and 
have always insisted on a recognition of this 
native reasonableness; and if it could always 
be found in the same degree among the "lead- 
ers" who would represent these men on com- 
mittees for purposes of collective bargaining, 
the present unwillingness to consider even the 
possibility of such bargaining would rapidly dis- 
appear. Under existing conditions, however, 
every day's experience provides additional prac- 
tical arguments against collective bargaining. 

The labor-union policies of restriction of 
membership, limitation of apprentices, and 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 151 

the closed shop, are all, as at present practiced, 
contrary to the principles of scientific manage- 
ment, for reasons too obvious to call for dis- 
cussion. The principle of organization on craft 
lines, as exemplified in the American Federa- 
tion of Labor, is also incompatible with the 
tendency of scientific management to substi- 
tute a classification of labor on the basis of 
efficiency and teachableness for a grouping on 
the basis of trade or occupation. This tendency 
is in fact the most irresistible weapon that 
scientific management now opposes to the cur- 
rent type of labor organization as represented 
in the American Federation of Labor. To those 
intelligent enough to distinguish the real prin- 
ciples of syndicalism from its crudities it will 
be apparent that the I.W.W. represents more 
modern tendencies and, unless it is killed by 
its abuses, has a more promising future (partly 
because of its greater consonance with the 
principles of scientific management) than the 
American Federation. 

In the light of this discussion it would appear 
that scientific management in its present form 
and organized labor as represented in the 
American Federation in its present form cannot 
persist together. One or the other must be 
modified. If history may be relied on to repeat 



152 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

itself, it is safe to prophesy that scientific man- 
agement, on account of its superior economic 
advantages, will compel the revision of labor 
organization, while itself not entirely escaping 
the necessity of some modification. 

It is conceivable that labor organization 
may shift its basis from restriction of output, 
uniformity of wage, and restriction of member- 
ship to an acceptance of the principles of maxi- 
mum output, wages in proportion to ability, and 
freedom of membership, while still retaining 
its fundamental and necessary power to help 
determine the minimum wage rate and the 
minimum working conditions through the instru- 
mentality of some mechanism in the nature of a 
collective bargain. If bargaining is, as I believe, 
the determining factor in the establishment of 
the basic wage within certain limits, there will 
always be a need for organization of employees 
to enable them to offset by their combined 
strength the strategic advantage of the em- 
ployer due to his initiative in hiring and his 
control of the purse-strings. The features of 
current trade-unionism objectionable from the 
point of view of scientific management and, as 
I believe, from the social point of view, are un- 
necessary to the existence of labor organization 
in the interest of the maintenance of minimum 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 153 

rates and conditions. Furthermore the labor 
politician in his present stage of evolution is not 
only unnecessary, but is an active detriment 
to the fulfillment of the best purposes of labor 
organization. For the development of collective 
bargaining on a basis of fact instead of compro- 
mise of opinion, labor organization must secure 
and maintain a radically different type of lead- 
ership from that which it now has. To this 
end all it has to do is to scrutinize its present 
leadership carefully, appreciate how unrepre- 
sentative and misleading some of it actually 
is, and substitute for that element a genuinely 
representative leadership that is law-abiding, 
fair in intention, socially minded, honest, in- 
telligent, and interested in the permanent wel- 
fare of its constituents. 

On the other hand, as scientific management 
extends from the plants which are entirely 
non-union shops, or are at least open shops, to 
those in which unions are strongly organized 
or even dominant, it will be incumbent upon 
it to recognize the necessity of some kind of 
cooperation. Even if this universe is as deter- 
ministic as some exponents of scientific man- 
agement insist, 1 the laws governing social and 

1 See preface to the French translation of Taylor's Shop 
Management, by Henri Le Chatelier; reprinted in Thompson's 
Scientific Management, p. 842. 



154 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

economic relations and the interaction of indi- 
viduals on each other are not yet formulated; 
and until they are, there must remain a place 
for bargaining. Scientific management must 
recognize also its twofold character as a collec- 
tion of laws on the one hand and as a set of 
principles on the other. The laws of science are 
not determined by counting heads; but prin- 
ciples of conduct in a free society can be en- 
forced only by the consent of those affected. If 
this consent requires the cooperation of or- 
ganized labor, so be it, provided this coSper- 
ation does not involve the sacrifice of funda- 
mental industrial and social principles. 

Scientific management, in spite of some of 
the claims of its more enthusiastic advocates, is 
not an industrial panacea. It cannot put an end 
to industrial unrest so long as personal and eco- 
nomic friction and inequality of income and 
opportunity persist. It is well that this is so, 
for complete content would be stagnation. On 
the other hand, scientific management does 
narrow the field of unrest and tends to refine 
the methods by which discontent makes itself 
audible and effective. It clarifies the issues 
between labor and capital, makes them more 
definite and more closely circumscribed. This 
process reduces the number of possible dis- 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 155 

putes and at the same time increases the possi- 
bility of arbitrating those that are left. In the 
long run this means less warfare and bitterness 
and more substantial justice to both sides. 

Some time ago I suggested that the labor 
unions in their own interest should advocate 
and compel the adoption of scientific manage- 
ment in those plants in which they could make 
their influence most felt. 1 I have since come to 
the conclusion that this is Utopian. Before it 
can be done there must be a new type of lead- 
ership, and those policies of organized labor 
which are incompatible with the fundamental 
principles and practices of scientific manage- 
ment must be abandoned. Further, the neces- 
sary unanimity of action on the part of all 
trades in a plant can be secured only by the 
" industrial' ' type of organization — repre- 
sented perhaps by the I.W.W. — not by that 
exemplified in the American Federation of 
Labor. 

I still believe, however, that the tendency is 
in this direction and that it can only be post- 
poned and not diverted by the active opposition 
of labor leaders and by public interference such 

1 See C. B. Thompson, "The Relation of Scientific Manage- 
ment to the Wage Problem," Journal of Political Economy, 
vol. xxi, p. 630. Reprinted in Thompson, Scientific Manage- 
ment, p. 796. Cf. Croly, Progressive Democracy, pp. 399 Jf. 



156 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

as was attempted in recent congressional legis- 
lation. In the long run the effect of such inter- 
ference is helpful to scientific management 
because of the publicity given it and the evi- 
dent importance attached to it even by those 
professionally opposed. In industry, as in reli- 
gion and politics, there is nothing like persecu- 
tion to aid a cause which is inherently good. 

III. Larger Social Problems 

What progress has scientific management 
made or is it likely to make toward the solution 
of larger problems, such as the cost of living, 
the reduction of unemployment, the improve- 
ment of education and skill, the smoothing out 
of inequalities of income, and the development 
of democracy in industry? Its originators and 
advocates claim the solution of these among its 
fundamental aims. It is altogether too early to 
give a just appraisal of its actual effect on such 
matters; but it may be advisable to consider 
just what scientific management does contrib- 
ute toward the complex of factors bearing on 
them. 

It would be difficult if not impossible to show 
that scientific management has as yet contrib- 
uted materially to a reduction in the cost of 
living, at least so far as that may be evidenced 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 157 

by a reduction in the price of those articles and 
items which go to make up the cost of living. 
It has been largely contributory to the reduc- 
tion in the price of high-class automobiles and 
this seems to affect an appreciably large part of 
the population. In certain other matters, such 
as the manufacture of books, it has improved 
quality even if it has not reduced price, and in 
this way has made a substantial contribution to 
the national income. 

The ultimate effect of scientific management 
cannot make itself felt, however, until a con- 
siderable number of plants within the same 
industry have adopted it so that they begin to 
compete between themselves. So long as but 
one or two have it, there is no strong reason for 
their surrendering the differential gains they 
get by selling at the market price set by their 
less efficient competitors. That is in general 
the condition to-day. Further, the improve- 
ments due to new methods are not reflected in 
the price of the article to the consumer until 
they directly affect consumers' goods. Scien- 
tific management thus far has been applied 
mainly to the production of intermediate pro- 
ducers' goods. 

The elasticity of demand may also be ex- 
pected to have an influence on the reduction of 



158 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

the cost of living. When the results of scien- 
tific management are obtained in the produc- 
tion of a commodity whose demand is inelastic, 
the increase in output may be expected to lead 
to a material reduction in cost and the compar- 
atively rapid elimination of the marginal pro- 
ducer. If, on the other hand, the demand is 
elastic, as in the case of watches, the superior 
facilities of production may spread themselves 
over a wider variety of product, resulting in 
only a slight decrease in price and without 
materially affecting the marginal producer 
except after a long period. 

It must be observed, however, that the lower 
cost of production may fail partially of its nor- 
mal effect on the market price because the cost 
of distribution may remain unchanged or even 
increase. Where the cost of marketing as in 
many commodities is greater than the cost of 
production, decreases in the latter cost are 
relatively of less importance. Again it may 
conceivably happen that the cost of marketing 
the increased product due to superior produc- 
tive efficiency may, in accordance with the law 
of diminishing returns, increase more rapidly 
than the cost of production has decreased, in 
which case the net result is an increase in mar- 
ket price. The answer to this, of course, from a 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 159 

social point of view is not to refrain from reduc- 
ing the cost of production because the cost of 
marketing may be increased thereby, but rather 
to turn the same scientifically trained and ana- 
lytical attention to the problems of distribution 
that has been applied to the problem of pro- 
duction. While it is true that many of the 
mechanisms of the Taylor System as exhibited 
in factories are not transferable bodily to trans- 
portation, jobbing, wholesaling, and retailing, 
there is none the less a reasonable ground for 
scientific faith that the same fundamental 
principles are applicable and must, in the inter- 
ests of economic efficiency, sooner or later be 
applied; and in fact a beginning has already 
been made in that direction. 

On the problem of unemployment scientific 
management has already contributed valuable 
experience and has pointed out the way in 
which a partial solution may be found. One of 
the greatest causes of unemployment, aside 
from the maladjustments due to crises and 
panics over which scientific management can 
have no control, is the seasonal fluctuation in 
demand found in so many industries. From the 
point of view of scientific management these 
seasonal fluctuations mean exceptionally high 
cost of production during periods of activity, 



160 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

due to the sudden access of workers who have 
to be trained quickly and to the multitude of 
rush orders that interfere with the steadiness of 
administration under which any system works 
most effectively. Scientific management has 
therefore insisted on equalizing the demand. 
This is done by offering special inducements to 
customers to place orders that can be executed 
during the otherwise dull periods. The cost- 
accounting methods, which propose to equalize 
the cost of production by charging the loss due 
to unused plant and equipment directly to pro- 
fit and loss rather than to the cost of produc- 
tion, do not relieve the management of the 
necessity of making up this loss by more effec- 
tive marketing. The results of the policy in- 
sisted on by scientific management are steadier 
employment for all workers and less fluctuation 
in the earnings of piece workers. This is pro- 
moted by the policy of training employees in 
different kinds of work, so that when the de- 
mand slackens in one department they may 
be easily transferred to other departments in 
which the demand is greater. 

There should also be noted the effect of the 
higher wages that accompany scientific man- 
agement. In the first place, it tends to reduce 
the restless wanderings of employees from plant 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 161 

to plant, which is one important though com- 
paratively unexplored cause of unemployment. 
In the second place, steadier employment, by in- 
creasing the value of the employee to his plant, 
tends itself to raise his wages still further. This 
improvement when properly utilized by the 
management reacts again on the cost of pro- 
duction, ultimately in some cases on the selling 
price and the demand for the product, and 
finally back again on the demand for workers. 

As yet scientific management has not in fact 
seriously affected the problem of unemploy- 
ment. It is safe to say that it has in no case re- 
duced the number of men actually employed, 
while, on the other hand, it has in several in- 
stances increased that number. Either result, 
however, has affected such a small number of 
plants as to have been but an insignificant fac- 
tor, compared with those larger and vaster 
economic forces whose effect is registered in the 
number of the unemployed. 

Closely connected with the problem of the 
unemployed is that of the education and skill 
of the employee. In periods of decline in busi- 
ness the men first laid off are those who are the 
most costly, and as a rule these are the rela- 
tively uneducated and unskilled. What effect 
has scientific management on this problem? 



162 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Efforts to revive apprenticeship, either in the' 
old form under master- workmen or in the new 
form of apprentice schools, may by this time be 
set down as failures. To-day there is practically 
no such thing as a master-workman who is 
acquainted with all the traditions of his handi- 
craft. Practically all workmen are specialized 
and the utmost they can teach is the little 
specialty they have learned, a specialty which 
in many instances can be taught in a few days 
or even in a few hours. The apprentice schools 
attempt to give a smattering of all-round ac- 
quaintance with the job. When they are con- 
nected with plants, they reduce this as much as 
possible, plunge at once into specialized train- 
ing, teach the youth to do a limited job, .and 
keep him doing a man's work for a boy's pay as 
long as practicable. When they are not con- 
nected with industrial establishments they go 
to the other extreme and teach a mass of tradi- 
tional technique and theory, often with the aid 
of antiquated and obsolete equipment, which 
is useless and promptly forgotten when the 
youth is confronted by a real job under com- 
mercial conditions. 

Scientific management changes all this. 
Power-driven machinery had already increased 
output by the substitution of mechanical 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 163 

power, speed, and endurance, for the corre- 
sponding human qualities. Scientific manage- 
ment goes farther and increases output by the 
mastery of the natural laws involved and by in- 
creasing human skill and control. The effect of 
scientific management, therefore, is to put a 
premium on personal capacity and develop- 
ment. This it does by its policy of individu- 
alized and intensive training, specialization, 
and the substitution of definite high standards 
of accomplishment for the old feeling of all- 
round but indefinite capability. 

This policy, of course, gives occasion for com- 
plaint about the effects of ever greater special- 
ization. Since the industrial revolution began it 
has been considered proper to mourn the disap- 
pearance of the traditional all-round artisan. 
But is his passing really a misfortune either for 
himself or society? In the first place, it is 
doubtful if there were very many of him. To 
be versatile is not difficult, but to exhibit great 
capability in versatility is rare. If we may 
judge from their modern representatives, most 
of the all-round artisans were more versatile 
than capable. In the second place, the all- 
round artisan was content with a standard of 
accomplishment which is far lower than that 
expected of and by his modern specialized sue- 



164 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

cessor. The workman who to-day does one 
comparatively minute operation and does it 
with superlative excellence is, in his own opin- 
ion and that of society, a stronger and more 
capable man. His standards are raised and 
with it his self-respect and the esteem in which 
he is held. It may be pointed out further that 
the increasing development of specialization 
makes possible the discovery and training of 
exceptional capacity along special lines which 
might otherwise be obscured by the variety of 
duties imposed. Specialization in foremanship 
opens a new field of promise to many who were 
heretofore known as ordinary workmen. The 
tendency of scientific management is to recog- 
nize the fact that most men are ordinary, and 
provide for the most effective cooperative util- 
ization of ordinary capacities. Its chief means 
for the accomplishment of this purpose is spe- 
cialization and intensive individual training. 

It is hardly necessary to add that this argu- 
ment does not go so far as to propose the elim- 
ination of general and trade education. The 
social and political justification of such educa- 
tion remains as strong as before. Moreover, 
the tendency to substitute a knowledge of fact 
and of law for guesswork and tradition de- 
mands a degree of general intelligence and 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 165 

education which was quite unnecessary under 
the old methods of production. Scientific man- 
agement adds a quantitative value to educa- 
tion. 

The effect of scientific management on ine- 
quality of income has been suggested in former 
parts of this discussion and will be summarized 
here. The increase in the supply of managers 
(at least of the routine type) will, in the first 
place, reduce the wages of management. At 
the same time it will increase the demand for 
capital ; and this, together with the greater pro- 
ductivity of the capital employed, will tend to 
raise the rate of interest. A similar increase in 
the demand for workmen and in their produc- 
tivity will raise general wages. The two conse- 
quences are compatible because the sum total 
of the " national dividend" will be larger. At 
the same time the sharper differentiation of 
individual abilities and the payment of wages 
in proportion to efficiency will tend to maintain 
and even to raise wages still higher. 

Certain of these tendencies are permanent, 
others but temporary. The increase in the sup- 
ply of managers and the differences in ability 
of workmen will doubtless remain. The higher 
rate paid for capital, however, will tend so to 
increase the amount of it that becomes avail- 



166 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

able as to result eventually in a return to the 
previous rate of interest; so that in the long 
run, if the tendencies of scientific management 
were allowed to work out freely and without 
interruption, rent and profits, in the narrow 
sense, would be unaffected, interest would first 
rise and then fall again, wages of management 
would tend to become less, and workmen's 
wages higher. These are obviously steps toward 
greater equality of income than now prevails. 

A question of concern to many is the prob- 
able influence of scientific management on the 
tendency toward democracy in industry. What 
is meant by democracy in industry seems to 
vary with different thinkers and with the same 
thinker at different times. We will assume that 
it means at least a share in the control of indus- 
try and free opportunity for advancement. 

An industry which is governed by facts 
rather than by traditions and opinions is funda- 
mentally democratic, at least in the sense that 
it is immaterial whether the fact is produced by 
the general manager or the humblest lumper. 
Arbitrariness on either side is eliminated. Any 
workman may appeal to the arbitrament of 
facts with the same certainty of justification as 
the highest official. In this sense control be- 
comes impersonal; which is a step in advance 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 167 

from the current type of arbitrary personal 
control. 

On the other hand, with the increasing spe- 
cialization of modern management a greater 
degree of centralized control is necessary than 
before and this control must ultimately be exer- 
cised by one human being over another. To 
those who consider any degree of restriction of 
individual liberty, even in the interests of a co- 
ordinate activity, a derogation of democracy, 
scientific management must be undemocratic; 
in fact any management must be. So is any 
type of government. The only alternative is 
anarchy. If this extreme view is not held, the 
question becomes whether the control whose 
necessity is admitted shall be exercised by 
persons chosen by the controlled or by some 
other agency. Experience with cooperative 
productive enterprises has shown the present 
impracticability of the selection of industrial 
leaders by the rank and file of the employees. 
On the other hand, a long history of favorit- 
ism, nepotism, indifference, and ignorance has 
shown the inadvisability of arbitrary selection 
by owners and managers. Scientific manage- 
ment provides a method of selection by capac- 
ity. In other words, its type of government is 
that of an aristocracy of demonstrated ability, 



1 68 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

tempered by the necessity of retaining the 
good-will of the employees without which the 
methods of scientific management cannot be 
successfully operated, and further ameliorated 
by the type of discipline which wells up from 
beneath and is at least partially self-enforcing. 

That such is in fact its result is evident to 
any one investigating a plant in which scientific 
management has secured a firm foothold. The 
executives are but slightly removed from the 
ranks of the workmen and are in fact as well as 
in theory the servants of the men. The men 
occupy a new position of power and responsi- 
bility of which they are fully cognizant and 
have even been observed reminding their 
"bosses" of any failure in the adequate per- 
formance of the bosses' duties. 

The characteristic regard for impersonal fact, 
the greater mobility between ranks, and the 
keener appreciation of individual abilities, 
characteristic of scientific management, pro- 
vide opportunities for advancement far greater 
than those commonly observed. There are 
large differences in the capacity of manual 
workers. These differences are made evident 
by time study, are immediately recognized, and 
the capable workman is an object of exceptional 
esteem. A long-run effect of this is to transfer 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 169 

esteem from the workman to the work as such 
and to increase the self-respect of workmen and 
their regard for their personal rights and corre- 
sponding obligations. All these would seem to 
be in the direction of a sane democracy. 

IV. Forecast of the Future 

Unless scientific management has before it a 
long and influential future all the foregoing 
discussion has a merely academic interest. It 
has established a firm foothold in the short 
period of its existence. Whether it will live and 
grow depends upon whether its inherent ad- 
vantages can offset some of the difficulties now 
in the way of its development. 

Chief among these obstacles is the conserva- 
tism and mental inertia of business managers. 
Business is proverbially cautious, one might 
almost say unprogressive. Managers consider 
that even in the beaten paths the risks are great 
enough ; and it is only the exceptionally bold or 
the rash who will step out into the unknown, 
even though it may look promising. As success 
after success is scored by the pioneers, ordinary 
managers get over their timidity. To-day there 
is evidence of an almost undue haste to adopt 
the new methods. The demand for scientific 
management has brought forth a horde of 



170 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

"efficiency experts," untrained, incompetent, 
sometimes quacks and charlatans, whose oper- 
ations are tending to discredit the name and 
purpose of the movement. This phase shows 
signs of passing, and we seem to be settling into 
a period where the progressive but skeptical 
manager is coming to the front, who must first 
be convinced, and when convinced commits 
himself to the patient development of real 
science in his plant. 

Another obstacle is the cost of the best- 
known systems, owing to the scarcity of experts 
capable of developing them and the necessity of 
finding out, by expensive experiment, the very 
A, B, C, of the science of each new industry to 
which the methods are applied. The cost, of the 
first few steps which are now being taken is so 
high that only plants able and willing to make 
an investment of $30,000 or $40,000, without 
the expectation of large returns for two years 
or more, are in position to undertake the devel- 
opment. This obstacle also tends to disappear 
as experience demonstrates the certainty and 
largeness of the returns from such investment. 

The scarcity of engineers capable of develop- 
ing scientific management also retards its ex- 
tension. At present it is safe to say that there 
are not over twenty in the entire country. As 



ECONOMIC ASPECTS 171 

all of them give their time personally to the 
development of their work, this puts a serious 
limitation on the number of plants that may 
avail themselves of their services. The only 
remedy is the discovery and development of 
younger men in the same field. There are signs 
that since Mr. Taylor's death the liberal policy 
of the originator of scientific management is 
being restricted somewhat by his immediate 
followers. The attention given to the subject in 
the colleges and business schools of the country, 
and the increasing demand for specialists in 
this work, will aid in overcoming the difficulty. 

To a certain extent the distrust of social 
workers and the opposition of organized labor 
tend to retard the movement; but it is my im- 
pression that the publicity resulting from active 
opposition, when followed by investigation and 
publication of facts, as it usually is, tends to aid 
it. There can be no question that the recent 
congressional debates on scientific management 
in the Watertown Arsenal case, uninformed as 
on the whole they were, called the attention of 
business men to the actual facts regarding the 
Taylor System, and resulted in an increasing 
interest and a desire to secure its advantages. 

This enumeration of the obstacles to the 
development of scientific management betrays 



172 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

their smallness and transitoriness in compari- 
son with the greatness and permanence of the 
forces with which its progress is allied. Already 
it is demonstrating its capability of great indus- 
trial and social advantage to its users. Its close 
relationship to the movement for the conserva- 
tion of all resources has been pointed out and 
its far-reaching consequences as an agency for 
the conservation of human effort have struck 
forcibly the popular imagination. Finally, its 
inherent democracy, as exhibited in its substi- 
tution of fact, so far as possible, for the vagaries 
of personality, and its provision of self-govern- 
ment and unlimited opportunity for advance- 
ment, tie it closely to the most intelligent 
political movements of the day. While it would 
be idle to deny that there are countertenden- 
cies to all these and that there have been abuses 
and misinterpretations of the principles of sci- 
entific management, 1 it seems safe to believe 
that on the whole it represents an inevitable 
and irresistible tendency, and that therefore its 
extension and permanence are assured, so far 
as, historically speaking, there may be assur- 
ance of permanence. 

1 The discussion of positive management in the recent book 
of Hoxie, Valentine, and Frey, Scientific Management and 
Labor, seems to rest on a consideration chiefly of abuses and 
inadequacies of the movement. 



V 

THE LITERATURE OF SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT 

The literature of scientific management is 
found in a few books written by practitioners of 
the science, a few official reports growing out of 
disputes as to railroad rates and labor difficul- 
ties, technical articles which have appeared in 
the Transactions of engineering societies and 
in engineering and other technical magazines, 
and a considerable mass of "popular" articles 
written to satisfy the recent widespread popular 
interest in the subject. 

These books and articles may be classified, 
for the purposes of the present review, in six 
groups. 

The first group includes those incidental to 
or dealing with the development and theory of 
scientific management as a whole. It consists 
of the original publications of the pioneers and 
such popular statements as reveal a clear grasp 
of the movement. 1 

The second group includes descriptions of 

1 Many of the popular articles are evident pot-boilers, too 
ill-considered and ephemeral to be worthy of discussion and 
preservation. 



174 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

scientific management in operation, written as 
a rule by managers of plants which have devel- 
oped the system. 

As a result of the injection of scientific man- 
agement into the discussion of railroad rates, 
there has arisen a considerable body of litera- 
ture on the possibility of the application of the 
system to railroads. This is of sufficient con- 
sequence to constitute the third class. 

In the fourth class are the many detailed 
descriptions of methods which are either dis- 
tinctive of scientific management, or, though 
not peculiar to scientific management, coor- 
dinated and assimilated by it into its own 
system. 

Those methods of scientific management 
which affect most directly the human factor 
in production have stimulated a literature 
which is of sufficient importance to warrant 
being put into a fifth class by itself. 

In the sixth and last group is the series of 
discussions dealing with the relation of scientific 
management to organized labor. 

To this classification of special books and 
articles should be added a word regarding the 
magazines which have dealt more or less fully 
with the subject. One of the chief among these 
is the Engineering Magazine, which was largely 



THE LITERATURE 175 

instrumental in bringing to the attention of the 
engineering profession the early work of Mr. 
Taylor and especially the ideas of Mr. Harring- 
ton Emerson. Industrial Engineering, which 
was unfortunately quite short-lived, devoted 
itself particularly to the work of the Taylor 
group. Factory and System, especially the for- 
mer, have published many articles on the sub- 
ject of scientific management and their edi- 
torial tone has been considerably influenced by 
that movement. An excellent little magazine 
called One Hundred Per Cent (after its original 
name, Efficiency, had been dropped) is devoted 
almost exclusively to the methods and practice 
of scientific management engineers. The fol- 
lowing pages will contain many references to 
articles in these magazines. 

The more important books and articles are 
discussed briefly in the text. Others not suffi- 
ciently distinctive or noteworthy to call for 
special review, but important for students of 
the movement, are referred to in the notes. 
The text and notes together cover nearly ninety 
per cent of all that has been published on the 
subject. 1 

1 Bibliographies covering scientific management may be 
found in the Efficiency Number, Special Libraries, vol. 4, no. 5, 
pp. 69-109, published by The Special Libraries Association, 
Indianapolis, May, 1913, and in a selected list issued by 



176 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



i. Development and Theory of Scientific 
Management as a Whole 

In 1832, Charles Babbage, the eminent 
mathematician, published a book * in which he 
attempted to deduce from the practice of man- 
ufacturing as it existed in his time, the general 
underlying principles which apparently con- 
trolled it. This piece of work, though crude in 
the light of modern advance, was so far ahead 
of the state of contemporary manufacturing 
intelligence that its significance was entirely 
overlooked, and it is only to-day that the force 
of his analysis is evident. Although it does not 
appear that the modern group of scientific 
managers are in the slightest degree indebted 
to Babbage's work, it is interesting to observe 
in it the suggestion of the extension of special- 
ization beyond manual labor to mental labor, 
which is at the basis of the Taylor doctrines of 
functional foremanship and the separation of 
planning from execution. Babbage also fore- 

myself under the title Bibliography of Scientific Management, 
published by the American Library Association, Chicago, in 
1916. Many references to books and articles may be found in 
the Engineering Index, published by the Engineering Maga- 
zine Company, and in the Bibliography of Labor, published 
annually by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics. 

1 The Economy of Manufactures. London, 1832. (Out of 
print.) 



THE LITERATURE 177 

shadows the use of timing as an aid in the de- 
velopment of processes; but in this he was not 
so fortunate, and the undeveloped method he 
used is not even remotely connected with mod- 
ern time study. 

The important stimulus to the modern devel- 
opment is found in the work of a group of man- 
agers and engineers, members of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, who drew the 
attention of their fellow-members to the influ- 
ence of wages on the output of workmen. The 
earliest of these was Mr. Henry R. Towne, 
president of the Yale & Towne Manufacturing 
Company. Mr. Towne has always been essen- 
tially a thinker in industry. Early in the eight- 
ies he wrote a paper 1 which was a plea for the 
technically trained engineer to concern himself 
in the financial and profit-making aspects of 
management — to be an " economist' ' because 
he effects economies. As a result of taking his 
own advice in his own plant, and after a reali- 
zation of the practical inefficiency of profit- 
sharing as an incentive to production, Mr. 
Towne evolved 2 and described a modified type 
of profit-sharing which he called "gain-shar- 

1 "The Engineer as Economist," Transactions, American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 7, p. 425. (These Trans- 
actions will be abbreviated hereafter Trans., A.S.M.E.) 

8 "Gain-Sharing," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 10, p. 600. 



178 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

ing." It consisted in modifying profit-sharing 
by applying it to departments instead of to the 
business as a whole, and basing it upon demon- 
strable gains in the efficiency of departments as 
evidenced by careful accounting. Out of the 
discussion of this paper grew practically the 
entire modern literature on wage systems as 
incentives. 

Prominent on this subject were the papers of 
Mr. F. A. Halsey and Mr. James Rowan l and 
an article by Mr. Rowan. 2 The object in the 
mind of these managers was to provide a defin- 
ite basis on which gains in efficiency could be 
measured, and to bring the gain and the conse- 
quent bonus home to the individual workman. 
It was an attempt to remedy the defects both 
of profit sharing with its indefiniteness and of 
piece rates with their temptation to cutting; 
and it amounts practically to the rough deter- 
mination of a standard of individual perform- 
ance and the announcement in advance of a 
systematically graded and expected cut. 

1 "The Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," Trans., 
A.S.M.E., vol. 12, p. 755. Reprinted in Sibley Journal of 
Engineering, vol. 16, p. 219, and in Trade Unionism and 
Labor Problems, chap, xi, edited by John R. Commons. (Bos- 
ton, 1905.) 

2 "A Premium System Applied to Engineering Workshops." 
Proceedings, Institute of Mechanical Engineers, March 20, 
1903, p. 203. 



THE LITERATURE 179 

While this discussion (the very considerable 
literature of which is outside the scope of this 
paper) 1 was in progress, Mr. Frederick W. 
Taylor, at that time foreman and master- 
mechanic of the Midvale Steel Company, was 
trying to solve the problem of individual and 
plant efficiency by another and an essentially 
different method. One result of his experi- 
ments was the development of a new form 
of piece rate now known as the "differential 
piece rate," according to which a workman is 
paid a low rate per piece for ordinary pro- 
duction and a considerably higher rate for 
production according to a standard, deter- 
mined by careful and accurate time study, and 
made possible of attainment by systematic 
training of the workman and by such manage- 
ment of the plant as facilitates to the utmost 
the operations performed by the laborer. Mr. 
Taylor's first statement of his methods and 
results was submitted to the American Society 
of Mechanical Engineers in a paper 2 which has 
been described by Mr. Going, the accomplished 

1 An excellent review of the discussions on this subject is 
contained in H. B. Drury's Scientific Management, Columbia 
University Press, 1915. This discussion of the literature is the 
best part of Drury's book, as his review of the later history of 
the movement suffers from a lack of practical acquaintance 
with the methods whose history he attempts to narrate. 

2 "A Piece- Rate System," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 16, p. 856. 



180 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

editor of the Engineering Magazine, as "one of 
the most valuable contributions that have ever 
been made to technical literature." 

At this stage of the development, the system 
consisted of " three principal elements: (i) an 
elementary rate-fixing department; (2) differ- 
ential rate system of piece work; (3) what he 
(Mr. Taylor) believes to be the best method of 
managing men who work by the day." The 
rate-fixing department analyzes and standard- 
izes work and piece rates with the aid of ele- 
mentary time study. This procedure differs 
from that of other rate-fixing departments "in 
that a careful study is made of the time re- 
quired to do each of the many elementary oper- 
ations into which the manufacturing of- an 
establishment may be analyzed or divided. 
These elementary operations are then classified, 
recorded, and indexed and when a piece-work 
price is wanted for work, the job is first divided 
into its elementary operations, the time re- 
quired to do each elementary operation is found 
from the records, and the total time for the job 
is summed up from these data." 

The differential rate system of piece work is 
defined briefly as "offering two different rates 
for the same job, a higher price per piece in case 
the work is finished in the shortest possible 



THE LITERATURE 181 

time and in perfect condition, and a low price 
if it takes a longer time to do the job, or if there 
are any imperfections in the work (the high rate 
should be such that the workman can earn more 
per day than is usually paid in similar establish- 
ments)." The best method of managing men 
who work by the day "consists of paying men 
and not positions. Each man's wages as far as 
possible are fixed according to the skill and 
energy with which he performs his work, and 
not according to the position which he fills. 
Every endeavor is made to stimulate each 
man's personal ambition." The advantages of 
this system, as deduced by Mr. Taylor from ten 
years' experience with the Mid vale Steel Com- 
pany, are: first, lower cost of production with, 
at the same time, higher wages; second, by sub- 
stituting knowledge for guesswork, the elimina- 
tion of the motive for " soldiering"; third, the 
substitution of exact knowledge leads to a 
treatment of the men with greater uniformity 
and justice, and their response with more and 
better work; fourth, cooperation of the men 
and the management is made obviously their 
common interest; fifth, the system is rapid in 
attaining the maximum productivity, which 
is automatically maintained by the differential 
rate; sixth, it selects and attracts the best men, 



1 82 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

develops many slow and inaccurate workmen 
into first-class men, and discourages and sifts 
out men who are incurably lazy or inferior; 
seventh, "it promotes a most friendly feeling 
between the men and their employers, and so 
renders labor unions and strikes unnecessary." 

The paper then proceeds to discuss the 
Towne and Halsey wage systems and profit- 
sharing, and points out the absence in all of 
them of a definite measure of a day's work. It 
then describes the method of elementary rate- 
fixing and the application of the differential 
piece rate by its means, with illustrations of the 
results attained. 

It is significant of Mr. Taylor's habit of 
mind that this early paper is a description of 
methods and results, including hardly a sus- 
picion of theoretical deduction. It is a testi- 
mony to the accuracy of Mr. Taylor's later 
statement that scientific management is not a 
theory to be applied to practice, but that it 
is first and primarily a practice out of which, 
many years after its beginning, a theory has 
developed. 1 

1 An interesting description of the application of this form 
of piece rate is found in "The Taylor Differential Piece- Rate 
System," Engineering Magazine, vol. 20, p. 617, by Mr. San- 
ford E. Thompson, one of the early collaborators with Mr. 
Taylor and a recognized expert on time study. A good discus- 
sion of the whole matter grew out of a weak paper by Mr. 



THE LITERATURE 183 

The difficulty of bringing a plant to the 
necessary perfected degree of administration 
and the apparent severity of the differential 
piece rate led one of Mr. Taylor's collaborators, 
Mr. H. L. Gantt, to develop a different form of 
premium system, which retained, however, the 
essential element of an accurate time-study 
basis. This method, known as the "Gantt 
bonus plan," is a time-rate method. It guar- 
antees the operator the regular hourly or daily 
rate, but adds a bonus for achievement of the 
standard quantity and quality of work, known 
as "the task." This standard is set, as with 
Mr. Taylor's differential piece rate, by time 
study. Mr. Gantt has published a large num- 
ber of articles on the subject, the best of which, 
together with his own development of the re- 
lation of scientific management to some of the 
human problems involved, have been collected 
in one volume. 1 

Mr. Gantt points out how by the ordinary 
methods of management the cost of production, 
which is at the basis of the great problem of the 
increasing cost of living, follows a vicious circle 

F. Richards, "Is Anything the Matter with Piece Work?" 
Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 68, participated in by Mr. Tay- 
lor, Mr. Emerson, and others. 

1 Work, Wages and Profits. (New York, 1910.) The first / 
edition, published in 19 10, is somewhat enlarged and consider- 
ably revised in the second edition, 1913. 



184 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

of higher wages to meet higher cost and in- 
creased cost as the result of higher wages. The 
way out is to manage production in such a way 
that higher wages bring a decreased cost ; and 
this is the aim of scientific management. This 
is accomplished by standardizing the condi- 
tions for efficient operation, instructing the 
workmen thoroughly in the best methods, and 
using wages as an inducement to them to accept 
the instruction and the conditions provided. 
The development of the Gantt bonus and its 
relation to piece work are described in detail, 
and the effect of the system on the workman's 
habits of industry and cooperation is outlined 
and demonstrated with charts and diagrams 
showing comparisons between old methods 
and the new. These charts, based upon the 
records of actual workers, are extraordinarily 
interesting human documents, showing the 
gradual overcoming of difficulties and the fixa- 
tion of habits of punctuality, reliability, and 
efficiency. The 1913 edition adds a chapter 
to the effect that, as the great natural resources 
of this country can be relied on less and less 
in competition with other countries, our fu- 
ture depends upon the application of scientific 
methods and the increase in the efficiency of 
operation, and concludes with a brief chapter 



THE LITERATURE 185 

illustrating some of the detailed methods of 
the Taylor System as developed by Mr. Gantt. 

This book of Mr. Gantt's is one of the best 
that has appeared on the subject and is en- 
titled to rank with Mr. Taylor's Shop Manage- 
ment and The Principles of Scientific Manage- 
ment, as one of the standard authorities. 

Scientific management, however, is not 
merely a system of wage payment. One of 
its essential features is the determination and 
application of standards not only of perform- 
ance, but of methods and equipment. In fact, 
it is a cardinal principle of scientific manage- 
ment that a proper standard of performance 
cannot be attained in the absence of stand- 
ardized methods and equipment ; and it was in 
the effort to secure standard performance that 
Mr. Taylor and his associates were led to in- 
vestigations of detailed processes which have 
themselves become classics. One of the earliest 
of these is Mr. Taylor's " Notes on Belting," 1 
which, with the later paper by Mr. Carl G. 
Barth, 2 has had an immense influence on the 
current manufacture and use of belts. An- 
other investigation growing out of Mr. Tay- 
lor's work was concerned with the proper com- 

1 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 15, p. 204. 

2 "Transmission of Power by Leather Belting," Trans,, 
A.S.M.E., vol. 31, p. 39. 



i86 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

position and method of heat treatment of tool 
steel, and the shape of cutting tools. This in- 
vestigation, carried on with the assistance of 
Messrs. Gantt, Barth, and Maunsel White, and 
extending over twenty-six years, led incident- 
ally to the discovery of high-speed steel, which 
has revolutionized machine-shop practice and 
the design and construction of machine tools 
all over the world. The results of this investi- 
gation are published in a paper called "The 
Art of Cutting Metals." 1 

While Mr. Taylor was carrying forward in 
a variety of industries the development of 
his distinctive type of management, but was 
publishing nothing about its details, 2 Captain 

1 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 31. An interesting explana- 
tion of one of the means by which Mr. Taylor's results are 
applied in machine-shop practice is found in the paper by Mr. 
Carl G. Barth, the mathematician of the group, on "Slide 
Rules as Part of the Taylor System," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 
25, p. 49. An illustration of the effect of such work as a stimu- 
lus to the application of thought to management appears in 
the article by Mr. Charles Day called "The Machine-Shop 
Problem," ibid., vol. 24, p. 1302, which emphasizes the need 
of coordination, analysis, and a scientific determination of 
facts. 

"The Art of Cutting Metals" is reviewed by A. Wallichs 
and O. Petersen, Taylors untersuchungen uber rationelle Drehar- 
beit. (Stahl und Eisen, 1907, Nos. 29 and 30, Dusseldorf.) 

2 The only paper by a member of the Taylor group dealing 
with any detail was Mr. Gantt's "Graphical Daily Balance in 
Manufactures," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 24, p. 1322, which was 
a description of the method of scheduling introduced by him 
at the American Locomotive Works. 



THE LITERATURE 187 

Henry Metcalf had been developing independ- 
ently and describing 1 a system of routing and 
accounting in the government arsenals, and 
Mr. Oberlin Smith, president of the Ferracute 
Machine Company, had presented an interest- 
ing paper on the naming of machine parts. 2 
When the opportunity came Mr. Taylor helped 
himself freely to the suggestions in these papers 
and incorporated them, with considerable modi- 
fication, into his practice. 

Finally, after twenty years' experience, Mr. 
Taylor submitted to the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers the history and methods 
of his system in what seemed to him to be defin- 
ite, complete, and coordinated form. This was 
his famous paper on "Shop Management," 3 
which has been extensively reprinted and trans- 
lated into French, German, Dutch, Italian, 
Russian, Lettish, and Japanese. In response to 
the popular interest in the subject brought 
about by the railroad rate case in 191 1, Mr. 
Taylor was induced to publish a less technical 

1 "The Shop Order System of Accounts," Trans., A.S.M.E., 
vol. 7, p. 440. The Cost of Manufactures and the Administra- 
tion of Workshops. (John Wiley & Sons. New York, 1885. 
3d edition, 1907.) 

2 "The Naming of Machine Parts," Trans., A.S.M.E., 
vol. 2, p. 366. 

3 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 24, p. 1337. (New edition. New 
York, 191 1.) 



188 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

statement under the name The Principles of 
Scientific Management. 1 

''Shop Management" is a considerable ex- 
pansion of the earlier paper on "A Piece-Rate 
System," and includes much of the detailed 
methods that had been developed by Mr. Tay- 
lor in the intervening years, together with some 
analysis of the industrial and economic prin- 
ciples involved in his system. The emphasis is 
laid throughout on the importance of "the 
coupling of high wages for the workman with 
low labor cost for the employer," and the event- 
ual interest of the public in the reduced prices 
resulting from this combination. The difference 
between the " first-class man" and the average 
workman, the means for selecting or developing 
the former class, the methods of accurate scien- 
tific time study, the philosophy and operation 
of the task idea in management, the determina- 
tion of standards, the separation of planning 
and execution, the development of functional 
foremanship and the planning department, and 
steps to be taken in changing from ordinary to 
"the best type of management," are dealt with 
extensively. Emphasis is laid on the "evils of 

1 Harper & Bros., New York, 191 1. A very brief resum6 
by Mr. Taylor, " Principles and Methods of Scientific Manage- 
ment," is found in the Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, pp. 
117, 181. 



THE LITERATURE 189 

soldiering' ' and the failure of piece rates and 
premium plans to overcome them; it appears 
that Mr. Taylor's entire system grew out of his 
determination to break up this practice. 

The objects sought can be attained, accord- 
ing to Mr. Taylor, most easily by the applica- 
tion of the following principles : — 

(a) A Large Daily Task. Each man in the es- 
tablishment, high or low, should daily have a clearly 
defined task laid out before him. This task should 
not in the least degree be vague or indefinite, but 
should be circumscribed carefully and completely, 
and should not be easy to accomplish. 

(b) Standard Conditions. Each man's task should 
call for a full day's work, and at the same time the 
workman should be given such standardized con- 
ditions and appliances as will enable him to accom- 
plish his task with certainty. 

(c) High Pay for Success. He should be sure of 
large pay when he accomplishes his task. 

(d) Loss in Case of Failure. When he fails he 
should be sure that sooner or later he will be the 
loser by it. 

When an establishment has reached an advanced 
state of organization, in many cases a fifth element 
should be added, namely: the task should be made 
so difficult that it can only be accomplished by a 
first-class man. 

The rest of the book is an amplification of 
the methods by which these so-called "princi- 
ples" are applied. 



190 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

The Principles of Scientific Management l de- 
velops the same ideas in a slightly different 
way. Much emphasis is laid on the import- 
ance of the substitution of scientific knowledge 
and incentive on the part of the management 
for the former reliance on the crudely stimu- 
lated initiative of the workman. There is the 
same discussion of "soldiering," inadequacy of 
piece and premium systems, and a non- techni- 
cal review of certain typical methods of the 
system, with illustrations of the application of 
scientific method to such diverse operations as 
shoveling, pig-iron handling, and the cutting of 
metals. 

It is interesting to note in the later book a 
restatement of the " principles," otherwise re- 
ferred to as "elements": — 

First. The development of a true science. Sec- 
ond. The scientific selection of the workman. Third. 
His scientific education and development. Fourth. 
Intimate friendly cooperation between the manage- 
ment and the men. 

In an earlier section of the same book, these 
"principles" are restated in slightly different 
form as the "new duties" devolving on the 

1 See the articles in the American Magazine, vol. 71, pp. 570 
and 785, and vol. 72, p. ioi, and in World's Work (London), 
vol. 1 8, pp. 91 and 168. 



THE LITERATURE 191 

management. In this case they are given as 
follows : — 

First. They develop a science for each element of 
a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb 
method. 

Second. They scientifically select and then train, 
teach, and develop the workman, whereas in the 
past he chose his own work and trained himself as 
best he could. 

Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so 
as to insure all of the work being done in accord- 
ance with the principles of the science which has 
been developed. 

Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the 
work and the responsibility between the manage- 
ment and the workmen. The management take 
over all work for which they are better fitted than 
the workmen, while in the past almost all of the 
work and the greater part of the responsibility 
were thrown upon the men. 

It is evident from these statements that Mr. 
Taylor does not distinguish sharply between 
principles, duties, and methods, and it is diffi- 
cult to see why the methods selected for eleva- 
tion into the class of principles are limited to 
those given and do not include such funda- 
mental and radical departures as functional 
foremanship and the task and bonus. This is 
but another evidence of the fact that the Tay- 
lor System is in reality the summation of years 
of the varied experience of many individuals, 



192 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

which has not even yet been thoroughly coor- 
dinated and developed into such a system of 
real principles or laws as characterizes other 
modern sciences. I believe that the principles 
are there and that they only await definite and 
systematic formulation. 1 

In the summer of 191 1, the unionized ma- 
chinists and molders . employed at the Water- 
town Arsenal, where the Taylor System was 
being developed, walked out; and on being 
taken back petitioned that the Labor Commit- 
tee of Congress investigate the subject and 
recommend such legislation as would be neces- 
sary to protect their interests. A committee 
was appointed consisting of Mr. William B. 
Wilson, the present Secretary of Labor, Mr. 
William C. Redfield, now Secretary of Com- 
merce, and Mr. John Q. Tilson, "to investigate 
the Taylor and other systems of management' ' 
in government shops. The investigators con- 
fined themselves practically to the Taylor Sys- 

1 Among the foreign reviews of Taylor's books may be 
mentioned especially the following: G. Deherme, "L'Or- 
ganisation scientifique du Travail," La Cooperation des IdSes, 
3me Ser., N° i8 f 16 Sept., 1912, Paris. R. Lucion, "Le Tay- 
lorisme," Revue Economique Internationale, vol. 3, no. 2, 
August, 1912, pp. 389-403. Francesco Giannini, UOrgani- 
zazzione Scientifica del Lavoro. (Roma, 1912.) Giovanni 
Aichino, Organizazzione Scientifica delle Oficine. (Torino, 
19 12.) A. Wallichs, Taylors Werkstattenorganisation. (Dtissel- 
dorf, n. d.) 



THE LITERATURE 193 

tern, held hearings at the principal navy yards, 
and took testimony of workmen, foremen, 
managers, "efficiency experts," and practically 
the entire group of Taylor System engineers. 
The result of their investigation was a brief 
report that no legislation was necessary. More 
useful, however, was the publication of the 
great mass of testimony taken. 1 This report of 
the hearings is a perfect mine of information in 
regard to the history, methods, practice, and 
results of the Taylor System and must be 
strongly recommended as one of the funda- 
mental sources on the subject. 

Another important body of testimony is that 
introduced by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis as part of 
the case of the shippers in the "Eastern Rate 
Case" 2 which is carefully sifted, analyzed, and 
coordinated in Mr. Brandeis's brief. 3 

The most important publication by Mr. Tay- 
lor, in addition to those mentioned, is a book 

1 Hearings before the Special Committee of the House of 
Representatives to investigate the Taylor and other systems 
of shop management. (Washington, 19 12.) 

2 Interstate Commerce Commission Reports, vol. 20, p. 243. 

s A part of this brief was published under the title Scientific 
Management and Railroads. (New York, 1912.) The testi- 
mony in this case had no effect on the decision of the Inter- 
state Commerce Commission; but the spectacular and seem- 
ingly extravagant form in which some of the testimony was 
given by persons outside the Taylor group, but influenced by 
it, caught the popular fancy and was responsible for the great 
publicity the movement suddenly attained. 



194 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

prepared by him and Mr. Sanford E. Thomp- 
son, 1 which includes, in addition to an acute 
analysis of concrete construction, certain chap- 
ters on time study and valuable tables of unit 
times determined in accordance with the Tay- 
lor methods. 2 

An interesting series of articles illustrating 
the breadth of Mr. Taylor's interests is that in 
the "Cultivation of Golf Greens," 3 detailing the 
methods and results of experiments with which 
he occupied his leisure time on his estate near 
Philadelphia. 

Although the Taylor System has been ap- 
plied to many types of industry other than 
machine-shop production in which it originated, 
little has been published on these applications 

1 Concrete Costs. (John Wiley and Sons. New York, 19 12.) 

2 Two interesting articles by Mr. Taylor, "Why Manu- 
facturers Dislike College Graduates," Sibley Journal of Engi- 
neering, vol. 24, p. 195, and "A Comparison of University and 
Industrial Methods," Stevens Indicator, vol. 24, p. 37, set 
forth his convictions in regard to the place of college graduates 
in manufacturing and particularly his criticisms of their point 
of view and the handicaps under which they labor and for 
which their college training is responsible. Chief among these 
are the inability to concentrate on an undertaking and bring 
it through to a conclusion, the failure to recognize the impor- 
tance of punctuality and the value of time and discipline, 
and a lack of appreciation of the point of view of the work- 
ingman. 

There is an interesting comment on this in Mr. D. C. Jack- 
son's "Criticism of the Engineering Schools," Stevens Indi- 
cator, vol. 27, p. 25. 

3 Country Life in America, February-June, 1915. 



THE LITERATURE 195 

by those closest to the movement. Among the 
detailed discussions of other industries, how- 
ever, must be mentioned the book by Mr. 
Charles Day, 1 dealing with the construction 
and lay-out of factories. Mr. Day points out 
the influence of the design of the plant upon the 
efficiency of operation and details the work in- 
cident to its planning and building, from the 
selection of the site to the construction of build- 
ings and the installation of equipment. Excel- 
lent illustrations are given of the best lay-out 
and routing of materials in factories of different 
types. Mr. Gantt has published a short paper 
dealing with the textile industry, 2 and Mr. Day 
has pointed out the possibility of application 
to diverse industries, including public service 
corporations. 3 

The printing industry, 4 mining, 5 agricul- 

1 Industrial Plants. (New York, 191 1.) 

2 "The Mechanical Engineer and the Textile Industry," 
Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 32, p. 499. See also Anon., "The Effi- 
ciency Engineer," American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Febru- 
ary 11, 1915, vol. xxix, p. 156. 

3 "Management Principles and the Consulting Engineer," 
Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 133. 

4 Anon., "Scientific Management — Can it be applied to 
the Printing Industry?" An editorial, The Printing Art, vol. 
17, pp. 223-26. May, 191 1. 

6 G. A. Collins, "Efficiency-Engineering Applied to Min- 
ing," Bulletin, American Institute of Mining Engineers, no. 
69, 1912. P. B. McDonald, "Efficiency Engineering in Lake 
Mines," Engineering and Mining Journal, October 28, 191 1, 
vol. 92, pp. 845-46. 



iq6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

ture, 1 and timber preserving, 2 have also had at- 
tention. Particularly suggestive articles on the 
application of scientific management to public 
business have been written by the well-known 
engineers, M. L. Cooke, of Philadelphia, 3 and 
Guy C. Emerson, of Boston. 4 

Growing out of the contributions of Mr. 
Taylor and his original group are a number of 
articles dealing with the theory of scientific 
management as it appears to those who first 
met it in its developed form. Among the most 
interesting of these are the Report of the Sub- 
Committee on Administration of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers. 5 This report, 
after pointing out the reasons for the present 
great popular interest in the subject, attempts 
to find the one basic principle in the movement, 
and discovers it in "the transference of skill." 
Just as the introduction of machinery meant 
"the transference of skill from the inventor or 

1 W. J. Spillmann, " The Efficiency Movement in its Rela- 
tion to Agriculture," Annals, American Academy of Politi- 
cal and Social Science, vol. 59, p. 64. 

2 E. A. Sterling and D. Burkhalter, " Efficiency and Scien- 
tific Management in Timber Preserving Plants," Railway and 
Engineering Review, March 16, 1912, vol. 52, pp. 237-39, 2 44- 

s "Scientific Management of the Public Business," American 
Political and Scientific Review, vol. ix, no. 3. 

4 "Scientific Management in the Public Works of Cities," 
National Municipal Review, October, 1913, vol. 2, pp. 571-82. 

5 "The Present State of the Art of Industrial Manage- 
ment," Journal, A.S.M.E., May, 1913, p. 871. 



THE LITERATURE 197 

designer to the power-driven mechanism," so 
scientific management is the transference of 
skill from the manual worker to the planning 
department and functional foremen, resulting 
in the saving of labor and the increased output 
and reduction of cost. The report includes a 
collection of interesting attempts to state the 
underlying principles of scientific management. 
Mr. Forrest E. Cardullo * has compared 
"conventional," "systematic," and "scien- 
tific" management, with illustrations of ad- 
ministration of the various types. Then follows 
a discussion of the causes of current inefficiency, 
which may be grouped into three classes : those 
which are chargeable primarily to the employer, 
those which are chargeable primarily to the 
workman, and those which are chargeable 
primarily to our political and industrial system. 
They include mental laziness, prejudice against 
so-called "non-productive" labor, timidity of 
capital, lack of foresight and adaptability, 
mental inertia, lack of study of industry, ineffi- 
cient wage systems, and avarice, on the part of 
the management ; and on the part of the work- 
men, disinclination to work at other than their 
accustomed pace, lack of ambition, mental 

1 "Industrial Administration and Scientific Management," 
Machinery, vol. 18, pp. 843, 931; vol. 19, p. 18. 







198 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

laziness, and enmity to their employers; and 
on the part of the political and industrial sys- 
tem, periodical depressions, seasonal variations 
in work, intense individualism, wasteful com- 
petition, and sudden changes in laws, customs, 
fashions, and social conditions. The paper 
closes with an enumeration of the objections to 
scientific management and the answers to them 
and is, on the whole, one of the best contribu- 
tions to the subject. 

Lieutenant G. J. Meyers * has made an inter- 
esting attempt to deduce and formulate "laws" 
of management. He gives the following synop- 
sis of laws : — 

Law I. What to do. 

Law II. Instructions before work starts. m 

Law III. Machines and tools. 

Law IV. Workmen. 

Law V. Insure instructions are carried out. 

Law VI. Costs. 

Law VII. Study for improvements. 

Each statement begins: " It is necessary in any 
activity.*' Thus Law I is in this form: "It is 
necessary in any activity to have a complete 
knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare 
instructions as to what is to be done before the 
work is started"; and so for each topic in the 

1 "The Science of Management," Journal, American Soci- 
ety of Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 994. 



THE LITERATURE 199 

synopsis. The formulation of each law is fol- 
lowed by a brief statement of the reasons for it 
and the method of its application. The paper 
is a highly interesting essay in the formulation 
of industrial principles. 1 

The present writer 2 has pointed out that the 
time study methods of the Taylor System pro- 
vide a definite basis for one side of the wage 
bargain : to wit, the content of a day's work, but 

1 To these should be added the following: Mr. H. P. Ken- 
dall's "Management: Unsystematized, Systematized and 
Scientific," Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, 

1912, p. 112; reprinted in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, 
p. 374; also in Proceedings, 27th Annual Convention of the 
United Typothetae and Franklin Clubs of America, pp. 140- 
65 (Chicago, 1913. 250 pp.), and in Journal of Political 
Economy, July, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 593~6i7, — a comparison of 
the types of management mentioned, based on the writer's 
personal experience with the last two and a wide acquaintance 
with the first. Mr. Tracy Lyon's brief review of principles in 
"Scientific Industrial Operation," in Technology and Indus- 
trial Efficiency, p. 200. (New York, 191 1.) Reprinted in 
Iron Age, vol. 87, p. 922, and in Industrial World, vol. 45, p. 
464. Mr. A. Hamilton Church's "The Meaning of Scientific 
Management," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 97, which 
is one of numerous suggestive but unsuccessful attempts to 
find "the one" principle underlying the movement. Finally, 
the editorial, "Scientific Management More Than a Labor 
Problem," Industrial Engineering, vol. 11, p. 467, pointing out 
the inclusiveness of the method. See also Coburn "The Sci- 
ence and the Art of Management," Iron Age, January 23/ 

1913, vol. 91, pp. 248-49; and John H. Van Deventer, "The 
Ultimate Type of Management," Engineering Magazine, June, 
1915, vol. xlix, no. 3, p. 394. 

* C. B. Thompson, "Relation of Scientific Management to 
the Wage Problem," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 21, 
p. 630. 



200 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

makes no attempt to determine the equivalent 
day's wage, except to provide a means through 
the bonus or differential rate for the application 
of the principle that superior service should be 
paid at a superior rate. 

M. LeChatelier's Introduction to the French 
translation of The Principles of Scientific Man- 
agement discusses the fear both on the part of 
the employers and the workmen, that the radi- 
cally new methods of scientific management 
will bring about critical economic problems of 
readjustment; and lays this fear to ignorance 
of the gradual working-out of economic changes. 
Professor Veblen has included scientific man- 
agement in his broad survey of the influence of 
types of industrial organization and ''culture" 
on technological proficiency. 1 

Mr. Morris L. Cooke, formerly director of 
Public Works in the City of Philadelphia, and 
one of the later additions to the original Taylor 
group, was retained by the Carnegie Founda- 
tion to make an investigation of academic effi- 
ciency from the point of view of an industrial 
administrator. 2 Mr. Cooke discusses current 
types of university organization, the college 

1 The Instinct of Workmanship and the State of the Indus- 
trial Arts. (New York, The Macmillan Company, 1914.) 

2 "Academic and Industrial Efficiency," Bulletin, Carnegie 
Foundation, no. 5, 19 10. 



THE LITERATURE 201 

teacher as a producer, research, the economical 
use of buildings, functional activities, financial 
administration, and student administration. 
According to him, there is no present gauge to 
efficiency in academic work and, while recog- 
nizing that the product of the university is of so 
intangible a nature as not to be subject to exact 
measurement, he points out the possibility of 
the application of a unit, the student-hour, to 
the measurement of administrative efficiency. 
His discussion is brought to bear in detail upon 
the administration of a physics department and 
includes an application of some of the methods 
of industrial administration. 1 An interesting 

1 The following articles may be taken as samples of the 
comment provoked by this study: " Educational and Indus- 
trial Efficiency," Science (n. s.), vol. 33, p. 101, by Richard 
C. Maclaurin, President of the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, who is apprehensive that the methods proposed 
by Mr. Cooke will consume too much of the time of officers 
of instruction and will tend to distract attention from the 
fundamental purpose of a university; "Educational or Ad- 
ministrative Efficiency," Engineering Magazine, vol. 40, p. 
606 (anonymous); and "Scientific Management and Aca- 
demic Efficiency," Nation, vol. 93, p. 416, by Professor A. G. 
Webster. Mr. Cooke's proposals are appreciatively reviewed 
by Professor H. F. Person in "Academic and Industrial Effi- 
ciency," Dartmouth Alumni Magazine, vol. iv, p. 126 (1912); 
and "Academic Efficiency," Bulletin, Society for the Promo- 
tion of Engineering Education, vol. iv, no. 2, p. 39 (1913). See 
also Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, pp. 216-17 (March, 191 1), 
a reply to Maclaurin. There is a series of papers by "practical 
men," not particularly well informed and highly theoretical, 
on "Scientific Management and Efficiency in College Ad- 
ministration." (Ithaca, New York, 1913.) Henry LeChatelier, 



202 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

attempt to establish standards in elementary 
education, with suggestions of reforms based 
on business standards is made by J. M. 
Rice. 1 

Interesting suggestions for the partial or 
complete application of the Taylor System to 
varied industries are made by Mr. F. B. Gil- 
breth 2 when he shows the revolutionary result 
of the application of motion study to a trade so 
ancient as laying bricks, and by Mr. B. M. 
Ferguson 3 who details the favorable results of 
his experiments, particularly in its application 
to outdoor construction. 

The success of the application of the Taylor 
System to the government arsenals drew the 
attention of engineers in the navy to the possi- 
bility of its application to their branch of the 
service. This is discussed by Mr. C. S. Brewer 4 

in "Le Systeme Taylor, Science experimentale et psychologie 
ouvriere," Paris, 1914, Bulletin, la Societe des Amis de l'ficole 
Poly technique (Paris, 19 14), discusses the bearing of scientific 
management on the modification of technical training. The 
same subject is handled by H. Diemer in "Factory Organi- 
zation in Relation to Industrial Education," Annals, Ameri- 
can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 44, p. 130. 

1 Scientific Management in Education. 282 pp. (New York 
and Philadelphia. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, 1913.) 

8 Bricklaying System. (New York and Chicago, 1909.) 

8 "The Application of the Taylor System to Gas Works," 
American Gas Light Journal, vol. 95, p. 225, and Progressive 
Age, vol. 29, p. 830. 

4 "Scientific Management in the Army and Navy," World's 
Work, vol. 23, p. 311. 



THE LITERATURE 203 

and by Lieutenant-Commander W. B. Tardy. 1 
Particularly interesting is the Report of the 
Civilian Expert Board 2 on Industrial Manage- 
ment of United States Navy Yards. This 
Board, appointed by the Secretary of the Navy, 
and consisting of Messrs. H. L. Gantt, Har- 
rington Emerson, and Charles Day, investi- 
gated the present functions and conditions of 
navy yards. They discussed the efficiency of 
their management in comparison with that of 
industrial plants and made certain recommen- 
dations in regard to the nature of the work 
properly to be performed in navy yards and 
"that scientific management be introduced and 
perpetuated in the navy yards which it is 
decided to operate. ,, Former Secretary George 
von L. Meyer 3 seems to have favored this 
development. 

Mr. Wilfred Lewis, in "Conserving the Data 
of Scientific Management/' 4 suggests the op- 
portunities for colleges to assist in securing 

1 "A Plea for a Standard Organization of the Engineer 
Division Aboard Ship," etc., Journal, American Society of 
Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 681. 

2 Prepared by direction of Hon. George von L. Meyer, Sec- 
retary of the Navy. (Washington, 19 12.) 

3 "The Business Management of the Navy," Scientific 
American, December 9, 191 1, vol. 105, p. 513. See also editorial, 
"Scientific Management on Sea and Shore," Scientific Ameri- 
can, June 3, 191 1, vol. 104, p. 542. 

4 Iron Age, December 5, 1912, vol. 90, pp. 1324-25. 



204 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

and participating in the results of scientific 
management investigations. 

The most ambitious attempt to apply the 
Taylor principles to selling has been made by 
Mr. Charles W. Hoyt. 1 He describes such 
modern methods as training classes, salesmen's 
conventions, standardized talks, and he outlines 
rather inadequately the application of the 
scientific method of approach to the problems 
of salesmanship. 2 A good description of the 
methods of routing salesmen employed in a 
well-known scientific management plant is 
given by Mr. H. W. Brown. 3 

The growing realization that perhaps the 
greatest economic waste from which we suffer 
is due to the inefficient management of house- 
hold economy has resulted in some attention 
being given to the working of the Taylor prin- 
ciples in domestic management. Perhaps the 
most thoughtful book on this subject is that of 

1 Scientific Sales Management. (New Haven, 1913.) 

2 Other articles dealing briefly with this subject are Mr. 
Amasa Walker's "Scientific Management Applied to Commer- 
cial Enterprises," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 21, p. 
388, and Mr. J. George Frederick's " Applying the Science of 
Management to Selling," Industrial Engineering, vol. 12, 
p. 204. See also Enrico Alfredo Masino, "I Sistema Taylor 
Applicato alle Imprese Commerciali," Rivista dellp Societa 
Commerciali, Fasc. 8-9. (Roma, 1913.) 

8 " Scientific Handling of Salesmen," Industrial Engineering, 
October, 1914, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 358. 



THE LITERATURE 205 

Mrs. Mary Pattison, " Principles of Domestic 
Engineering,' ' x which builds up from the funda- 
mental concept of the nature and purpose of 
the home and includes some of the results of 
her work at the Housekeeping Experiment 
Station at Colonia, New Jersey. Another stim- 
ulating book on the subject is that of Martha 
B. and Robert W. Bruere, 2 and there is a good 
article by Lucy M. Griscom in the Journal of 
Home Economics. 3 A most suggestive article is 
that by Mr. J. B. Guernsey, 4 which, however, 
is rather too vague and theoretical to be of 
practical service. 

A widespread interest in scientific manage- 
ment has led to the consideration of its applica^ 
tion, of course in modified form, to the profes- 

1 Colonia, New Jersey, 19 15. 

2 Increasing Home Efficiency. (New York, The Macmillan 
Co., 1912. 318 pp.) 

3 "The Elimination of Waste in the Household," Journal 
of Home Economics, June, 1910, vol. 2, pp. 292-97. 

4 "Scientific Management in the Home," Outlook, vol. 100, 
p. 821, keenly criticized in "Scientific Management in the 
Home," ibid., vol. 102, pp. 72-74. See also H. P. T., "House- 
keeping as a Business," ibid., June 8, 1912, vol. 101, pp. 
303-05; Francis E. Leupp, "Scientific Management in the 
Family," ibid., August 12, 191 1, vol. 98, pp. 832-37; Frank 
B. Gilbreth, "Scientific Management in the Household," 
Journal of Home Economics, December, 19 12, vol. 4, pp. 
438-47; and M. Atkinson, "The Application of Scientific 
Methods to Housekeeping," Living Age, October 24, 1908, vol. 
259, pp. 227-33. Cm page 240 will be found references to the 
application of time and motion studies in household manage- 
ment. 



206 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

sions. Professor W. F. Ostwald l shows where 
it may be useful to scientists in their work. 
Dean Shailer Mathews 2 indicates how church 
management may profit by it, and H. W. Jes- 
sup 3 uses it with considerable effect in a severe 
criticism of judicial methods. 

It is not strange that the best-known and 
most popular books on the principles of scien- 
tific management are not those written by its 
originator and his co-workers; they are the 
product of persons who have been influenced 
by them and whose gift of expression is more 
highly developed. Foremost among these are 
two books by Mr. Harrington Emerson, 4 
marked by a breadth of interesting informa- 
tion, and a capacity for inspiring, almost poetic, 
elucidation, which have made them the most 
popular expositions of the subject. 5 

1 "Scientific Management for Scientists," Scientific Ameri- 
can, January 4, 1913, vol. 108, pp. 5-6. 

2 Scientific Management in the Churches. (Chicago, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press, 1912. 66 pp.) 

■ "Legal Efficiency," Bench and Bar, March, 1913, vol. 4, 
pp. 55-68. 

4 Efficiency (New York, 19 10), and The Twelve Principles 
of Efficiency (19 12). 

6 Three other simplified expositions worth mentioning are 
The Primer of Scientific Management (New York, 1912), by 
Mr. F. B. Gilbreth; The Psychology of Management (New York, 
1913), by Mrs. L. M. Gilbreth; and an excellent presentation 
by Lauritz A. Larsen, Scientific Management. (New York, 
Alexander Hamilton Institute, 191 1.) 



THE LITERATURE 207 

Mr. Emerson discusses certain typical ineffi- 
ciencies and their significance, the causes of 
national industrial prosperity, the strength and 
weakness of existing systems of organization. 
He then proceeds to an exposition of his own 
method of line and staff organization, the de- 
termination and realization of standards, cost 
accounting, the location and elimination of 
wastes, and the Emerson bonus system. His 
method differs from that of Mr. Taylor in two 
respects : in the first place, in the line and staff 
organization, the staff consisting of the experts 
occupies an auxiliary and advisory relation to 
the management, whereas in the Taylor Sys- 
tem, the experts are the functional foremen and 
are an integral executive part of the organiza- 
tion; in the second place, the Emerson bonus 
proceeds on the rough determination of a stand- 
ard efficiency which he calls one hundred per 
cent ; the workman who attains sixty-seven per 
cent or less gets his guaranteed day wages, and 
is paid a bonus on a sliding scale for every in- 
crease in the percentage of efficiency; at one 
hundred per cent the bonus amounts to twenty 
per cent of his wages and one per cent is added 
for each additional one per cent of efficiency. 
As the task is not originally so accurately and 
thoroughly set as in the Taylor System, the 



208 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

workman can, and frequently does, exceed the 
one hundred per cent mark. 

Mr. Emerson states the principles of man- 
agement as follows: (i) clearly defined ideals; 
(2) common sense; (3) competent counsel; (4) 
discipline ; (5) the fair deal ; (6) reliable, imme- 
diate, and adequate records; (7) dispatching; 
(8) standards and schedules; (9) standardized 
conditions; (10) standardized operations; (11) 
written standard-practice instructions; (12) 
efficiency reward. Most of these are not by any 
means peculiar to scientific management, nor 
can it be said that Mr. Emerson's application 
of them is distinctively original. Incidentally 
it is interesting to note the gradual change from 
Mr. Emerson's acknowledgment of indebted- 
ness to Mr. Taylor, in certain discussions in the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, to 
the reversal of this position in his later pub- 
lished work. Mr. Emerson has made charac- 
teristic suggestions for the application of his 
principles to waterworks, 1 high schools, 2 and 
many other activities. 

Within the last few years an extensive liter- 

1 "The Principles of Efficiency Applied to Waterworks." 
Proceedings, American Waterworks Association, 19 12. 

8 "Scientific Management and High School Efficiency," 
Official Bulletin High School Teachers' Association of New 
York City, no. 35, November 9, 1912. 



THE LITERATURE 209 

ature on the general principles and methods 
of scientific management has been growing 
up in Europe. The best analysis of principles 
is that to be found in the various publica- 
tions of the distinguished French engineer, M. 
LeChatelier. 1 

Another French engineer, M. de Freminville, 
has investigated the subject in the United 
States and published his results with illumi- 
nating comments. 2 A German engineer, Hugo 
Borst, also visited the States and reported his 
conclusions in an interesting address. 3 Profes- 
sor Wallichs has given considerable publicity 
to the methods of the Taylor System as he 
derived them from Mr. Taylor's books. 4 In a 
long list of articles based on such knowledge as 
may come from reading on the subject may be 

1 Organisation Scientifique, Principes et Application. (Dunod 
et Pinat, Paris, 1915.) See also LeChatelier, Revue de Metal- 
lurgie, vol. xn, April, 1915, which contains reprints of a number 
of articles as a memorial to Mr. Taylor. 

2 " Le Systeme Taylor, Memoires," Bulletin, Societe d'En- 
couragement pour l'lndustrie Nationale (March, 1914, Paris), 
and "Le Systeme Taylor et L'Organisation Scientifique de 
Travail dans les ateliers," La Reforme Sociale, March, 19 14, 
vol. 67, p. 321. 

8 Das Sogennante Taylor -System. (Stuttgart, 1914.) 
4 " Moderne Amerikanische Fabrikorganisationen (System 
Taylor), Technik und Wirtschaft," Monatschrift des Vereines 
Deutscher Ingenieure. (V Jahrgang, 1912, Heft. I. Berlin); 
"Erhohung der Wirtschaftlichkeit durch Moderne Arbeits- 
verfahren (System Taylor)," Armierter Beton (VI Jahrgang, 
January, 1913, Berlin); and "Amerikanische Grundsatze der 
Betriebsleitung," Der Tag, December 8, 191 1. 



210 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

mentioned especially those of A. C. Allingham, 1 
Wilhelm Wirz, 2 G. Schlesinger, 3 S. Valenti 
Camp, 4 A. Voight, 5 Rudolph Seubert, 6 and 
Gine Scanferla. 7 All these are significant 
mainly for their showing of the widespread 
interest in the new industrial doctrines. 8 

Out of the large number of books written 
within the last five years on the general subject 
of factory administration, four of the most im- 
portant devote attention to a discussion of sci- 
entific management and show in general con- 
siderable influence by it. The most noteworthy 

1 "Scientific Shop Management on the Taylor System," 
Proceedings, Junior Institution of Engineers, November and 
December, 1912, London. 

2 "Taylors Betriebsystem " (Zurich, 1913); and "Taylors 
Betriebsystem," Zeitschrift fur Handelswissenschaft und Handel- 
spraxis (1913, H. 5, P- I33)« 

3 "Practical and Scientific Management: The Taylor Sys- 
tem from the Viewpoint of a German Engineer," Industrial 
Engineering, September, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 376-80. 

4 " Indagaciones y Lecturas; La Direccion Cientifica del 
Trabajo Humano," Estudio, vol. vn, p. 232, August, 1914. 

6 "Taylors System in Deutschland," E,lsassisches Textil- 
Blatt, July 1-8, 1913. 

e Amerikanische Fabrikorganisation nach System Taylor. 
1911. 

7 "Note sul sistema Taylor per l'organizzazione del lavoro 
nelle officine," Industria, December 15, 1912. 

8 For a collection of articles covering the theory and some 
details of the practice of scientific management, from Ameri- 
can sources mainly, see C. B. Thompson's Scientific Manage- 
ment (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 19 14); and the 
reviews of the same in the Nation (New York), December io, 
1914; and J. S. H., "Industrial Efficiency," Protectionist, 
December 4, 1914, p. 542, vol. 26, no. 8. 



THE LITERATURE 211 

of these are by Mr. Charles B. Going, 1 Mr. 
Dexter Kimball, 2 and Mr. A. Hamilton Church 3 
— these are especially valuable for the setting 
they give scientific management in the devel- 
opment of modern administrative methods. 
Messrs. Galloway, Hotchkiss, and Mayor, 4 
Hugo Diemer, 5 Norris A. Brisco, 6 J. Russell 
Smith, 7 Oscar E. Perrigo and Hugo Diemer, 8 
and Frederick A. Waldron, 9 have published 
books and articles on the general principles 
of factory management, showing very strongly 
the influence of the Taylor and allied sys- 
tems. 

It is natural that such a radical and far- 
reaching movement as scientific management 
should meet criticism. It has in fact been a 
veritable storm-center. Much of the criticism 

1 Principles of Industrial Engineering. (New York, 191 1.) 

2 Principles of Industrial Organization. (New York, 19 13.) 
* Science a r nd Practice of Management. (Engineering Maga- 
zine Company, New York, 1914.) Reviewed in Manufac- 
turers' Record, October 29, 1914, vol. 66, p. 63. 

4 Business Organization. (New York, 1912.) 
6 Factory Organization and Administration. (New York, 
1910.) 

6 Economics of Efficiency. (New York, 19 13.) 

7 Elements of Industrial Management. Reviewed by C. B. 
Thompson in American Economic Review, vol. vi, p. 377, 
1916. 

8 "Raising the Efficiency of Men and Machinery," System, 
April, June, September, 1906. 

9 "Modern Methods of Shop Management," Iron Age t 
April 28, 1910. 



212 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

is aimed at details and will be discussed later; 
but the following articles go for the system root 
and branch and should properly be enumerated 
here. The most comprehensive criticism is that 
by Admiral John R. Edwards, 1 who sums up 
the comments of most of the adverse writers, 
and adds on his own account that scientific 
management does not cover the whole of man- 
agement, and that in any case management is 
an art rather than a science, that the Taylor 
System antagonizes the workmen and neglects 
the personal equation, and that whatever ad- 
vantages have come from it have been inci- 
dental by-products. Another severe criticism 
is that by Mr. A. Hamilton Church, 2 who at- 
tacks particularly certain extracts from' Mr. 
Taylor's writings, leading to the conclusion 
that Mr. Taylor does not show a science. 3 Mr. 
Church and Mr. L. P. Alford 4 undertook to 
enumerate the principles of management and 
pointed out the place of the Taylor System in 

1 "The Fetishism of Scientific Management," Journal, 
American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 24, p. 355. 

2 "Has Scientific Management Science?" American Ma- 
chinist, vol. 35, p. 108. 

8 The same point is made in an editorial called "The Science 
of Management Defined, and the Scope of this Science," En- 
gineering and Contracting, vol. 39, p. 339. 

4 "The Principles of Management," American Machinist, 
vol. 36, p. 857. Reviewed by Mr. D. S. Kimball and Mr. J. 
Calder, ibid., p. 965. 



THE LITERATURE 213 

them. 1 Mr. Waldron 2 has indicated what seems 
to him the insufficient attention the Taylor 
System has given to the balancing of functions. 
The system is severely criticized by Mr. John 
Calder. 3 

As already stated, most of the popular ar- 
ticles on the subject are obviously journalistic 
and ephemeral. The most spectacular discov- 
eries of Mr. Taylor and his co-workers lend 
themselves easily to " popular" treatment; and 
the possible results of the application of the 
stop-watch and the micrometer appeal effec- 

1 Other important general criticisms are those by Mr. Dex- 
ter S. Kimball, "Another Side of Efficiency Engineering," 
American Machinist, vol. 36, p. 263, developing briefly some 
of the social and economic implications of the movement and 
calling attention to the absence of a discussion of distribution; 
by H. G. Bradlee, "A Consideration of Certain Limitations 
of Scientific Efficiency," in Technology and Industrial Effi- 
ciency, p. 190 (New York, 191 1); reprinted in Stone & Web- 
ster's Public Service Journal, vol. 8, p. 323, pointing out that 
for the most effective application conditions must be uniform, 
work repetitive, and the area of operations small; by Mr. E. C. 
Peck, "Systematic versus Scientific Management," Iron Age, 
vol. 88, p. 364, drawing attention to the scarcity of real experts 
and the dangers of inexpert work; and by Mr. James R. 
Johnson, "A Manager's View of the Taylor System," Ameri- 
can Machinist, vol. 34, p. 885, representing the point of view of 
the typical successful manager, that we should let well enough 
alone. See also "Industrial Management," Engineering, 
June 27, 1913; and " Management as seen by the British Tech- 
nical Press," American Machinist, vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 257-58. 

2 "Factors of Management other than Labor," American 
Machinist, February 13, 1913, vol. 38, pp. 276-78. 

3 "Overvaluation of Management Science," Iron Age, 
March 6, 1913, vol. 91, pp. 605-06. 



214 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

tively to the imagination of magazine and 
newspaper writers. Most of their work contains 
nothing new or significant. A conspicuous ex- 
ception to this is a series of articles under the 
caption "The Golden Rule in Business/ ' pub- 
lished by Miss Ida M. Tarbell in the American 
Magazine at intervals during 191 4, 1915, and 
1916. The few popular articles of real value are 
listed below. 1 

1 The following contain good enough ideas, well enough 
expressed, to warrant listing and recommending them: Mr. 
A. G. Popke's "The Relations of Capital, Labor and Efficiency 
in Manufacturing," Engineering Magazine, vol. 43, p. 857, 
pointing out the necessity of increasing efficiency; Mr. E. 
Perry's "The Outsider and the Busy Business Man," ibid., 
vol. 40, p. 249, answering the old saw that improvement 
should come from the inside and not from the outside expert; 
a series of articles by Mr. E. M. Wooley, — "The One Best 
Way," System, vol. 20, pp. 227, 356, 460, 614; "Scientific 
Management in the Office," ibid., vol. 21, p. 3; "Getting Out 
the Mail," ibid., vol. 21, p. 284; "The Wanton Waste of 
Labor," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 13,173; "Lost Motions in Retail 
Selling," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 366, 465, — well written and sugges- 
tive; Mr. H. S. Philbrick's "Scientific Management," World 
To-day, vol. 21, p. 1167, developing the idea that scientific 
management is a resumption of the direct oversight over pro- 
duction which had gradually vanished; an anonymous article, 
"What is Scientific Management, and What Does it Do?" 
Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 1 ; an article, also anonymous, 
on "Efficiency Program," Independent, vol. 70, p. 739; an 
anonymous article entitled "Aspects of Scientific Manage- 
ment," Nation, vol. 92, p. 464: and an excellent article by Mr. 
F. B. Copley, "How it Works: What Manufacturers and 
Workmen are Getting out of Scientific Management," Amer- 
ican Magazine, vol. 75, p. 11, summarizing the results of an 
extensive investigation and approved personally by Mr. Tay- 
lor. Other articles are listed in italics without comment in 
the Bibliography, p. 271. 



THE LITERATURE 215 

2. Scientific Management in Operation 

As yet little has been published summarizing 
the results of the application of scientific man- 
agement in any large proportion of the plants 
which are using it. The nearest approach to a 
complete review of its present status is in the 
Report of the Sub-Committee on Administra- 
tion of the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, referred to above. 1 It is significant 
that one of the signers and, I believe, the actual 
writer of this report, is Mr. L. P. Alford, men- 
tioned above as one of the critics of the move- 
ment. Mr. Alford has written another excellent 
article, 2 based on the experience of a well- 
known Philadelphia company. Mr. G. D. Bab- 
cock, production manager of the Franklin Au- 
tomobile Company, has published an excellent 
statement of the methods and results of the 
system in that plant. 3 Mr. A. W. Shaw, editor 
of the magazine System, gives a good brief re- 

1 See also Symposium on "What Efficiency Means," Inde- 
pendent, November 30, 19 14, vol. 80, no. 3443, which includes 
expressions from C. W. Eliot, L. D. Brandeis, J. P. Mitchell, 
F. A. Vanderlip, C. H. Gary, and others. See also a brief de- 
scription by A. Wallichs, in "Eindriicke vom Amerikanischen 
Maschinenbau," Werkstattstechnik, 1912, Heft. 1. Berlin. 

2 "Scientific Management in Use," American Machinist, 
vol. 36, p. 548. 

3 " Results of Applied Scientific Management," Iron Age, 
vol. 93, pp. 1402, 1454, 1512, 1572; vol. 94, pp. 14, 90, 134. 
American Machinist, vol. 40, no. 25, pp. 1063-68. 



216 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

view, 1 describing the work of the system at the 
Tabor Manufacturing Company in Philadel- 
phia, and suggesting the method of its applica- 
tion to business problems in general and the 
results that might reasonably be expected from 
it. The experience of the Link Belt Company of 
Philadelphia is described by Mr. James M. 
Dodge, its late chairman 2 and a complete and 
detailed explanation of the operation of the 
Taylor System in that plant is given by Lieu- 
tenant Frank W. Sterling. 3 The experience of 
the same plant is the basis of an article by Mr. 
C. W. Adams, its superintendent. 4 The same 
methods, as worked out by the Midvale Steel 
Company, are described by Mr. H. L. Arnold. 5 
An excellent description of the early application 
of the system at the Bethlehem Steel Works is 
published by Mr. H. L. Gantt, 6 and the story 

1 "Scientific Management in Business," Review of Reviews, 
vol. 43, p. 327. 

2 "A History of the Introduction of a System of Shop Man- 
agement," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 27, p. 720. 

3 "The Successful Operation of a System of Scientific Man- 
agement," Journal, American Society of Naval Engineers, 
vol. 24, p. 167. 

4 "The Differential Piece Rate," American Machinist, vol. 
34, p. 18. See also "Methods of Management that Made 
Money," Industrial Engineering, January, 191 1, vol. 9, pp. 
21-27. 

6 "Preeminent Success of the Differential Piece Rate Sys- 
tem," Engineering Magazine, vol. 12, p. 831. 

6 "A Practical Application of Scientific Management," 
Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 1. 



THE LITERATURE 217 

of its introduction and results at the Tabor 
Manufacturing Company is told by Mr. Wil- 
fred Lewis, the president of the company. 1 
There is an interesting account of a prema- 
ture experiment in a French company by Mr. 
Georges de Ram, a young French engineer who 
had had some experience in American plants. 2 
The methods described in Mr. H. P. Kendall's 
paper 3 are in the main those of the large print- 
ing and binding establishment of which he is 
the general manager. Mr. Carl G. Barth gives 
an interesting anecdotal account. 4 Lieutenant- 
Commanders W. B. Tardy 5 and A. M. Cook 6 
give the results of the application of the prin- 
ciples of the system to gunnery practice and to 
the administration of a navy yard. The same 
subject is also dealt with by Mr. Holden A. 

1 "An Object Lesson in Efficiency," in Technology and In- 
dustrial Efficiency, p. 173. (New York, 191 1.) 

2 "Quelques Notes sur un Essai d' Application du Systerae 
Taylor dans un Grand Atelier de Mecanique Francais," Revue 
de Metallurgie, September, 1909. Paris. 

8 "Management: Unsystematized, Systematized, and Sci- 
entific," Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, 
1912, p. 12. Abstract in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 

374. 

4 "Betterment of Machine-Tool Operation by Scientific 
Metal Cutting," Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 586. 

5 "Scientific Management and Efficiency in the United 
States Navy," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 545; American 
Review of Reviews, vol. 44, p. 229. 

6 "Scientific Management Methods at a Naval Magazine," 
Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 75. 



218 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Evans in a series of articles. 1 The application 
to an automobile repair shop of the modifica- 
tion of the Taylor System used by Mr. Emerson 
and his disciples is described by Mr. A. Flack. 2 
Two extended and complete accounts are 
those by Mr. Charles B. Going and by Gen- 
eral William Crozier. Mr. Going's article 3 de- 
scribes the results achieved by Mr. Emerson in 
the application of his form of scientific manage- 
ment to the Santa Fe Railroad, and presents 
the conclusions of a disinterested spectator re- 
moved from the stress of the conflict between 
the railroad managers and their critics. It will 
be discussed in more detail in the next section. 
The reports by General Crozier on the applica- 
tion of the Taylor System to government ar- 
senals 4 are exceptional in that they give de- 
tailed costs and comparisons to an extent not 
considered practicable by the managers of pri- 
vate concerns. The 191 1 report gives an excel - 

1 "Reduction in Cost of Navy Yard Work," American 
Machinist, vol. 33, p. 1200; "General Instruction for Machine- 
Shop Methods," ibid., vol. 31, p. 610; "Detailed Instruction 
for Machine-Shop Methods," ibid., p. 645; "Do Taylor's 
Methods Increase Production?" ibid., vol. 34, p. 1133; "Out- 
put under Scientific Management," ibid., p. 1202. 

2 ' ' Machine-Shop Experience with the Principle of Efficiency 
Reward," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 641. 

3 "The Methods of the Santa Fe," Engineering Magazine, 
vol. 36, p. 909; vol. 37, pp. 9, 225, 337, 541. 

4 Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, 1911, 1912, 1913, and 
1 914. (Government Printing Office, Washington.) 



THE LITERATURE 219 

lent brief r6sum6 of the introduction of the 
system in the Watertown Arsenal, and a rather 
full demonstration of the statement that "the 
practical effect of these methods at the Water- 
town Arsenal has been a material reduction in 
the cost of general manufacture at that place," 
and describes the beginning of the trouble at 
that arsenal with the molders and machinists. 
The 1 9 12 report pursues the same subject and 
quotes comparisons of the cost of production at 
Watertown and other arsenals where the sys- 
tem had begun to be installed with bids on the 
same items from outside concerns. The appen- 
dix to the 1 91 3 report gives the recent petition 
of the Watertown employees for the abolition 
of the Taylor System, and the extended and 
conclusive reply of General Crozier. 

Accounts of a tentative application of scien- 
tific management to municipal and govern- 
mental work are found in the reports of the 
Milwaukee Bureau of Economy and Efficiency 1 
and in the report of the President's Commission 
on Economy and Efficiency. 2 

1 Bulletin no. 19, Eighteen Months 1 Work, Milwaukee, Wis., 
April 15, 1912. 44 pp. Bulletin no. 20, Garbage Collection, 
Milwaukee, Wis., January 15, 191 2. 24 pp. 

2 Washington, D.C., Superintendent of Documents, 1913. 
See also an article by Fred H. Colvin, " Management at Water- 
town Arsenal," American Machinist, September 12, 19 12, vol. 
37, pp. 424-27. 



220 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

3. Scientific Management and the 
Railroads 

In the Eastern Rate Case, the application of 
the railroads to the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission for permission to raise freight rates was 
met by the shippers, under the advice of Mr. 
Louis D. Brandeis, now Associate Justice of the 
Supreme Court of the United States, with the 
counter-argument that, instead of raising the 
rates to spend more money, they should make 
their operation efficient to get more out of their 
present expenditure. In the course of the hear- 
ings, the following testimony was introduced: — 

Mr. Brandeis. You have been quoted, Mr. Emer- 
son, as stating that in your opinion, by the intro- 
duction of proper efficiency system of scientific man- 
agement, the railroads of the United States could 
effect an economy of perhaps #300,000,000 a year, 
or not less than #1,000,000 a day. 

Mr. Emerson. That is correct — that is, I have 
been quoted as having stated that. 

Mr. Brandeis. Is it your opinion that that is the 
fact? 

Mr. Emerson. At least that. 1 

Although, as stated above, the decision of the 
Commission was not affected by this testimony, 

1 Brief on Behalf of Traffic Committee of Commercial Or- 
ganizations of the Atlantic Seaboard, before the Interstate 
Commerce Commission, re Investigation of Proposed Ad- 
vances in Freight Rates by Carriers in Official Classification 
Territory, p. 92. 



THE LITERATURE 221 

the publicity it received stirred up an intense 
discussion, much of which on the part of the 
railroads showed signs of the spirit of the man 
who has been stung. This attitude was due, at 
least partly, to a highly sensational article in a 
popular magazine, 1 and is fairly well repre- 
sented in an address by Mr. Howard Elliott, 
late president of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad. 2 

The best summary of the testimony bearing 
on this subject is by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, 3 
who has analyzed the meaning, the require- 
ments, and the effects of scientific manage- 
ment, and who groups the evidence of the wit- 
nesses in accordance with the analysis. In an 
earlier article 4 Mr. Harrington Emerson had 
pointed out that, in his opinion, the railroads 
could save $300,000,000 a year, and his articles 5 

1 C. Moffett, "Saving $1,000,000 a day for American Con- 
sumers," Hampton's Magazine, March, 1911, vol. 26, pp. 346-56. 

2 Efficient Railway Management. (St. Paul, Minn., 191 1.) 
7 pp. Railway Library, 1910, Chicago, 2d series, pp. 1 10-13. 

3 Scientific Management and Railroads. (New York, 191 1.) 
Ably reviewed by Mr. Edward D. Jones in the American Eco- 
nomic Review, vol. 1, p. 833. 

4 "Preventable Wastes and Losses on Railroads," Railway 
Age Gazette, vol. 45, p. 12. 

6 "How Railroad Efficiency can be Measured," Engineering 
Magazine, vol. 42, p. 10; and "The Methods of Exact Measure- 
ment Applied to Individual and Shop Efficiency at the Topeka 
Shops of the Santa Fe," American Engineer and Railroad Jour- 
nal, vol. 81, p. 221. Mr. Emerson's work in the Santa Fe work- 
shops is praised by Mr. W. J. Cunningham in the discussion of 



222 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

suggest the method by which he approaches 
this conclusion. Mr. Emerson had been re- 
tained by the Santa F6 to develop his form of 
scientific management in part of their work, 
and the results are described by Mr. Charles B. 
Going, 1 who outlines the problems of the road 
and describes Mr. Emerson's treatment of the 
stores-keeping, shop-order, and works-order 
systems, maintenance of motive power, the 
bonus system, the apprentice system, and rela- 
tions with the employees. The bonus system is 
further described by Mr. Fred H. Colvin, editor 
of the American Machinist. 2 

Mr. Taylor's address on scientific management before the New 
England Railroad Club (October 10, 191 1). The following 
articles are also of interest in this connection: David Van 
Alstyne, " Efficient Shop Management," Railway Age Gazette, 
May 5, 191 1, vol. 50, pp. 1051-53; F. L. Jandron, "Efficiency 
and the Railway Wage Problem," Engineering Magazine, No- 
vember, 1912, vol. 44, pp. 241-47; Clarke J. Morrison, "Fac- 
tors Influencing Railway Operating Efficiency," November, 
191 1, vol.42, pp. 241-50. 

1 Methods of the Santa Fe. (Engineering Magazine Company, 
New York.) 

2 "How Bonus Works on the Santa Fe," American Ma- 
chinist, vol. 36, pp. 7, 165. See also two articles by Mr. Charles 
H. Fry, associate editor of the Railway Age Gazette, in that 
magazine, vol. 41, pp. 476, 504, followed by an editorial on the 
same subject, vol. 45, p. 413. Mr. Fry outlines the organiza- 
tion of the work on that road and illustrates with charts and 
statistics the results attained, particularly in machine-shops. 

It is generally understood that the influence of Mr. Emerson 
pervades the book of Mr. H. W. Jacobs, Betterment Briefs (New 
York, 1909, 2d ed.), dealing with Santa Fe machine shop im- 
provements; reviewed in the Railway Age Gazette, vol. 47, p. 
1192. 



THE LITERATURE 223 

Severe criticism of Mr. Emerson and his 
methods was made by Mr. Wilson E. Symons. 1 
Mr. Symons attacks Mr. Emerson's statistics, 
shows the impossibility, in his opinion, of a 
million dollars a day saving, denies that Mr. 
Emerson's work on the Santa Fe was of any 
value, and gives examples of what he considers 
real railroad efficiency. Whatever may be the 
worth of Mr. Symons's statistics, it is evident 
to any one acquainted with scientific manage- 
ment that he knows practically nothing of the 
latter subject, and the paper is valuable mainly 
by reason of the discussion participated in by 
many well-known railroad men. 2 

The bitterness of the reaction by some rail- 

1 "The Practical Application of Scientific Management to 
Railway Operation," Journal, Franklin Institute, vol. 173, 
pp. 1, 140, 271, 365. See also his reply to an editorial criticism 
of his own paper in the Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, p. 1107. 

2 In the same journal appeared a defense of Mr. Emerson by 
Mr. C. J. Morrison, "Letter on Scientific Management" 
{Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 214), and a fair criticism with 
acknowledgment of variation of the Emerson and the Taylor 
methods in an anonymous article on "What is Scientific Man- 
agement?" {ibid., vol. 50, p. 839). Two good editorials on the 
subject are contained in the Railway Age Gazette: one of which 
(vol. 50, p. 18) holds that "the basic principles underlying scien- 
tific management are correct," and the other (vol. 50, p. 210), 
that "the value and effectiveness of scientific time study can- 
not be questioned." Some justification of Mr. Emerson's criti- 
cism of the efficiency of the railroads may be found in an article 
by Mr. L. C. Fritch, a well-recognized railroad expert, on 
"Opportunities for Economy on Railways," ibid., vol. 51, p. 
1059. 



224 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

road men is illustrated in a series of anonymous 
articles, 1 with such titles as "Extravagant 
Claims," "Impractical Theories," "Neglect of 
Human Element," "Unscientific Method and 
Impatience for Results," and "Neglect of 
Large Factors," which criticize severely some 
of the practices the writer had apparently met 
with. It is unfortunate that no means of identi- 
fication are given, and there is apparently some 
point to the comment in the letter by Mr. F. L. 
Hutchins 2 to the effect that the writer of the 
articles was mistaken in his classification of 
"efficiency men." The articles are well worth 
reading, however, as they appear to describe 
accurately the kind of things done by the many 
ill-prepared and inexperienced practitioners of 
"efficiency." 

The objection to scientific management on 
the railroads on the ground that interference 
of the labor unions makes it impossible, is 
voiced by Mr. J. O. Fagan, 3 who reiterates 
his point that the difficulty with the railroads 
is the employees. 4 There is also an ilium- 

1 "The Mistakes of the Efficiency Men," Railway Age 
Gazette, vol. 50, pp. 29, 230, 391, 849, 1059. 

2 Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 268. 

8 "The Dream of Scientific Management on Railroads," 
Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 1. 

4 See also the discussion between Mr. Fagan and Mr. E. H. 
Abbott in "Humpty Dumpty's Question, and Its Answer," 



THE LITERATURE 225 

inating and fair discussion of this subject by 
Professor W. J. Cunningham, of Harvard Uni- 
versity. 1 

Other fundamental objections to the applica- 
tion of scientific management to railroads are 
discussed by Professor Cunningham. 2 After 
stating the principles of the Taylor System, he 
discusses the testimony of Mr. Emerson and 
points out the vagueness of the methods pro- 
posed by him. He criticizes severely Mr. Emer- 
son's statistics and particularly the method by 
which he arrives at the one million dollars a day 
saving. Acknowledging the success of scientific 
management in commercial undertakings, he 
points out four essential differences between 
manufacturing establishments and railroads: 
(1) area and extent of activity; (2) nature of 

Outlook, vol. 97, p. 543. The subject is also dealt with in an 
anonymous article in the Iron Age, "Railroad Efficiency and 
the Labor Unions," February 23, 191 1; and the responsibility 
for the problem is traced in an anonymous article, ' ' Genesis of 
Railway Brotherhoods," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 782; 
the point is also mentioned by Mr. W. D. Hines in "Scientific 
Management for Railways," Nation, vol. 91, p. 576. 

An excellent example of the official attitude of the organized 
railroad employees may be found in an article by the President 
of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, Warren S. 
Stone, Efficiency as the Employee Sees It (Railway Library, 
191 1, Chicago), pp. 216-24. 

1 "The Railroad Question: Brotherhoods and Efficiency," 
Atlantic Monthly, September, 1909, vol. 104, pp. 289-302. 

2 "Scientific Management in the Operation of Railroads," 
Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 25, p. 539. 



226 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

product and output ; (3) relations with the pub- 
lic and the Government ; and (4) relations with 
labor unions, — any one of which, in his opin- 
ion, makes an application of the system to rail- 
roads impracticable. He then shows that the 
railroads have in fact for some time been apply- 
ing scientific management of their own kind, 
and that the remedy for their administrative 
difficulties lies in a further application of the 
same methods by better and more efficient 
men. 

Another railroad man, Mr. C. de L. Hine, in 
a stimulating and suggestive book, 1 develops 
the thesis that specialization has already been 
carried too far on the railroads and that what 
they need is decentralization rather than the 
increased centralization characteristic of scien- 
tific management. 2 

One of the principal arguments of the rail- 
roads was that, so far as scientific management 
was applicable to railroading, it was already 
being applied, as was pointed out in Mr. Cun- 
ningham's article already referred to. An at- 
tentive study of the examples given by the rail- 
road writers, however, shows that in the main 

1 Modern Organization. (New York, 1912.) 
8 Attention should also be called to two editorials in the 
Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 265 and p. 387. 



THE LITERATURE 227 

they have mistaken isolated applications of 
scientific methods for the systematized organ- 
ization of administration, which is meant by 
" scientific management." * 

In the mean time, practical heed is being 
given to the possibility of making some form of 
application of the new system to railroading. 
For obvious reasons little is being published on 
this point, and any reference to the fact that 
the methods are those of Mr. Taylor or Mr. 
Emerson is carefully avoided. 2 

The fact seems to be, as expressed 3 by Mr. 
C. C. Leech, that "the efficiency men simply 
got in wrong," and that when personalities came 
to be forgotten, the railroad managers were as 

1 See Mr. C. B. Brewer's *' Substitute for the Rate Increase," 
etc., Scientific American, vol. 104, p. 596; Mr. B. S. Hinckley's 
"The Scientific Thought Applied to Railroad Problems," in 
Technology and Industrial Efficiency, p. 181 (New York, 191 1); 
Mr. S. M. Felton's "Scientific Management of American Rail- 
ways," ibid., p. 221 ; and an anonymous article, "The Compar- 
ative Merits of Functional and Geographical Systems of Or- 
ganization," Engineering News, vol. 64, p. 692. 

2 This is shown in the articles by Mr. W. J. Harahan on 
"Scientific Management," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 212; 
by Mr. M. H. C. Brombacher on "Application of Scientific 
Management to a Railway Shop," ibid., vol. 51, p. 23; by 
Messrs. H. F. Stimpson, L. W. Allison, J. S. Sheafe, and C. J. 
Morrison, on "Application of Scientific Management to a 
Railway Shop," ibid., vol. 51, p. 33; and by Mr. B. A. Franklin 
on "An Efficiency Experiment Station for the Railroads," 
Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 1. 

8 "A Letter on Efficiency," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, 
p. 221. 



228 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

alive as any one to the possibilities of improve- 
ment. 1 As evidence of the truth of this 2 may 
be cited the work in the Canadian Pacific 
shops, where scientific methods have been in- 
stalled by Mr. Gantt and maintained and de- 
veloped by Mr. Vaughan, a leading railroad 
expert. 3 Mr. Colvin 4 described the same work 
and Mr. Zepp 5 shows how scientific manage- 
ment has been applied abroad in a large railway 
car factory. Accounts of applications on the 

1 An anonymous article, "Scientific Management of Rail- 
way Shops," Machinery, vol. 10, p. 16, calls attention to the 
steps taken by railroads to investigate efficiency as a result of 
the agitation; and an editorial in Engineering and Contracting, 
"The Railways and Scientific Management," vol. 35, p. 379, 
points out that scientific management is now being applied to 
the railroads. 

E. R. Dewsnup, "Freight Car Efficiency," Western Railway 
Club, Official Proceedings, 1907-08, shows the need of a sta- 
tistical study of car accounting, interchange and equipment, 
and points out the failure to attack and solve real problems. 
E. H. De Groot, "The Switching Factor in the Efficiency Prob- 
lem," St. Louis Railway Club, Proceedings, June 9, 191 1, vol. 
16, pp. 21-24, discusses the current inefficient lay-out of tracks 
from the same point of view. 

2 In spite of the conclusion by Mr. George J. Burns, in 
"Notable Efficiencies in Railway Machine-Shop Operation," 
Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, pp. 161, 386, 616, that the 
setting of standards in a railroad shop is impossible. 

1 "Canadian Pacific Shop Management," American Ma- 
chinist, vol. 35, p. 1 164; and "Scheduling Locomotive Repair 
Work on the Canadian Pacific Railway," Industrial Engineer- 
ing, vol. 8, p. 380. 

4 "Time-Saving Railroad Shop Methods," American Ma- 
chinist, October 5, 191 1, vol. 35, pp. 628-31. 

6 "Letter on Efficiency," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, p. 
643. 



THE LITERATURE 229 

Frisco Road 1 and in the shops of the Milwau- 
kee Electric Railway 2 have also been pub- 
lished. 

4. Methods 

In current discussions of scientific manage- 
ment so much emphasis has been laid upon such 
things as time study, motion study, functional 
foremanship, instruction cards, and slide rules, 
that there is serious danger of these mechan- 
isms of the system being taken for the system 
itself. With the warning, however, that de- 
tailed methods, either separately or in mere 
aggregation, are not scientific management, it 
is worth while to report the best of the articles 
and books which have appeared describing 
these methods. Nor is it superfluous to warn 
readers of these articles that the methods dealt 
with are so technical in their nature that their 
successful practice requires not only an expert 
in the methods used, but an expert in the 
proper adjustment of these methods to each 
other and particularly to the entire spirit of 
scientific management. 

There is an excellent series of articles dealing 

1 "Mechanical Department Progress on the Frisco," Rail- 
way Age Gazette, November 6, 1914, vol. 57, pp. 845-50. 

2 "Efficiency Engineering in the Shops of the Milwaukee 
Electric Railway," Electric Railway Journal, March 21, 19 14. 



230 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

with the method of approach to the system, 1 
most of which are amplifications of the warn- 
ings so liberally scattered through Mr. Taylor's 
own books. The point of all of them is that no 
management should undertake to develop the 
Taylor System in its plant, unless it is prepared 
for a very considerable expenditure of time, 
money, and effort and a slow process of mental 
revolution on the part of itself and its em- 
ployees. 

Of the growing shelfful of books on the entire 
subject, the best is, of course, Mr. Taylor's 
Shop Management referred to above. This book 

1 The best of these are Mr. James M. Dodge's "The Spirit 
in which Scientific Management should be approached," 
Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, p. 142; ab- 
stract in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 350; Mr. H. K. 
Hathaway's "Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific 
Management," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 141. Atten- 
tion may also be called to C. Bertrand Thompson's "How the 
Taylor System Works," Factory, November, 1914, vol. 13, p. 
325; ibid., December, 1914, vol. 13, p. 409; Henry P. Kendall, 
"The Attitude of Management and Men," Industrial Engi- 
neering, May, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 201-02; F. W. Taylor, " Chang- 
ing from Ordinary to Scientific Management," ibid., vol. 11, p. 
267; George F. Card, "Scientific Management," American 
Machinist, March, 191 2. The editor has an excellent editorial 
in Industrial Engineering on "Installation of Scientific Man- 
agement," vol. 10, p. 301; and there is a good article in the 
Iron Age by Mr. E. M. Taylor, "Modern Methods and the 
Business Specialist," vol. 84, p. 184. There is a suggestive and 
humorous account of the way not to do it, called "Echoes from 
the Oil Country," by Mr. W. Osborne, American Machinist, 
vol. 34, p. 1036; and another by Mr. H. K. Hathaway, in the 
discussion of Mr. Taylor's "Art of Cutting Metals," TransaC" 
tions, A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 281. 



THE LITERATURE 231 

deals mainly with machine-shop practice, but 
the principles and methods are developed in 
such a way that their application to other types 
of industry is not difficult if made by those 
sufficiently trained. The book on Concrete 
Costs by Mr. Taylor and Mr. Sanford E. 
Thompson, referred to above, applies scientific 
management to concrete construction. The 
other books detailing methods of application 
are written by men who have studied more or 
less with Mr. Taylor, or have been strongly in- 
fluenced by his methods. One of the best of 
these is by Mr. F. A. Parkhurst, 1 which includes 
a series of articles reprinted from Industrial 
Engineering. The book includes an outline of 
the organization of a plant under scientific 
management, and detailed statements of the 
functions of all the principal functional fore- 
men, an analysis of routing, stores systems 
and time study, a discussion of standardization 
and many illustrations of forms and appliances. 
The methods described are based on the prac- 
tice of the Ferracute Machine Company, and 
differ only slightly from the approved practice 
of the original Taylor group. Another excellent 
book by Mr. Holden A. Evans, formerly Naval 

1 Applied Methods of Scientific Management. (New York, 
1912.) 



232 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Constructor at the Mare Island Navy Yard, 1 
deals particularly with machine-shop, smith- 
shop, and woodworking-shop methods, and il- 
lustrates reductions in cost accomplished by 
these methods in navy yards under the author's 
supervision. In addition to its treatment of 
costs, it is concerned mainly with such develop- 
ments in the direction of scientific management 
as may be undertaken by a manager not spe- 
cially trained in the Taylor methods. 2 

Perhaps the most complete description of 
detailed methods of scientific management, as 
at present practiced, is that published by my- 
self. 3 There is an excellent description of some 
of the methods of the Tabor Manufacturing 
Company in a book by a young German engi- 
neer who studied for some time in that plant. 4 
The methods of the Emerson type of scientific 

1 Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. (New York, 1 9 1 2 . ) 

2 There is a good statement of underlying principles in Mr. 
Evans's article, "Scientific Factory Management," American 
Machinist, vol. 33, p. 1 108. The A. W. Shaw Company has pub- 
lished a little book, How Scientific Management is Applied (Chi- 
cago, 191 1 ), consisting of a series of reprints of System articles. 

8 C. Bertrand Thompson, Report on Scientific Management. 
(Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1917.) Many of the articles in C. B. 
Thompson's Scientific Management (Harvard University 
Press, Cambridge, 19 14) deal with detailed methods. See 
reviews in Textile World Record, November, 19 14; Manufac- 
turers' Record, October 29, 1914; Engineering Record, Novem- 
ber 14, 1914. 

4 Aus der Praxis des Taylor-Systems. (J. Springer, Berlin, 
1914.) 



THE LITERATURE 233 

management are described in some detail by 
Mr. C. E. Knoeppel. 1 

The application of scientific management to 
foundries and machine shops is given in some 
detail by Mr. Knoeppel 2 in a series of articles 
reprinted from the Engineering Magazine. This 
is an interesting and well-written description 
of the application of scientific management as 
interpreted by Mr. Emerson and his disciples. 3 

Mr. Walter N. Polakov 4 has published a 
valuable series of articles on the scientific man- 
agement of power plants and Mr. P. R. Moses 5 
has also made contributions of value. 

1 Installing Efficiency Methods. (Engineering Magazine 
Company, New York, 19 15.) Attention may be called, also, 
to a rather sketchy book by B. A. Franklin, Experiences in 
Efficiency. (Engineering Magazine Company, New York, 1915.) 

2 Maximum Production in Machine-Shop and Foundry. 
(New York, 191 1.) See also Knoeppel, " Current Foundry In- 
efficiencies and Practices," Foundry, September, 19 14; and 
Frederick A. Parkhurst, " Scientific Management in the Foun- 
dry," American Institute of Metals, September, 191 4. 

3 Attention may be called to articles by Mr. Holden A. 
Evans, "Detailed Instructions for Machine-Shop Methods," 
American Machinist, vol. 31, p. 16, and "An Analysis of Ma- 
chine-Shop Methods," ibid., p. 568; and by Mr. Frederick A. 
Waldron, " Modern Methods of Shop Management," Iron Age, 
vol. 85, p. 982, which are almost too brief to be very useful. 

4 "Power-plant Betterment by Scientific Management," 
Engineering Magazine, April-September, 191 1, vol. 41, pp. 
102-12; 278-92; 448-56; 577-82; 796-809; 970-75. 

6 "Scientific Management in Isolated-plant Operation," 
Engineering Magazine, February, 1913, vol. 44, pp. 714-20; 
and "Scientific Management in Power-Plant Operation," 
Engineering Magazine, Mareh, 1913, vol. 44, pp. 885-93. 



234 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

The best articles describing the functions of 
the planning department are those by Mr. H. 
K. Hathaway, 1 in which he outlines briefly the 
duties of the functional foremen and illus- 
trates the practical working of the extension 
of specialization to mental and supervisional 
work. 

Perhaps the most distinctive feature of scien- 
tific management in the popular conception of 
the term is its time study. Current methods of 
time study, however, are frequently confused 
with the Taylor method. In ordinary practice 
watches are often used to determine roughly the 
time an operation usually takes, and the result 
is sometimes made the basis of a piece rate. 
This type of time study is known to the Taylor 
group as an "over-all" study and is never used 
by them. The Taylor method consists in the 
analysis of operations into their elementary 
units, the determination of the best methods 
and time for the performance of each of these 

1 "The Planning Department," Industrial Engineering, 
vol. 12, pp. 7, 53, and 97. With these should be read an anony- 
mous article, "The Foreman's Place in Scientific Manage- 
ment," Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 197; and the criti- 
cisms of functional foremanship in Mr. John Calder's "The 
Production Department," Transactions, The Efficiency Soci- 
ety, vol. 1, p. 155. Professor Dexter S. Kimball discusses the . 
development and advantages of the Taylor form of functional 
organization in "Choosing a Form of Organization," Factory, 
July, 1914, vol. 13, p. 21. 



THE LITERATURE 235 

units, and their summation into a total time for 
the entire job. 

The best descriptions of elementary time 
study as practiced by the Taylor group of engi- 
neers are those by Mr. H. K. Hathaway, 1 Mr. 
H. W. Reed, 2 Mr. D. V. Merrick, 3 and Ralph 
W. Langley. 4 A comparison of these articles 
with the tables of operating times given in 
Babbage's Economy of Manufactures will effec- 
tively dispose of any claim that the Taylor 
methods were anticipated by Babbage. 

Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, one of the early 
associates of Mr. Taylor, has contributed an 
interesting article of a more general nature on 
the same subject. 5 The sections of Taylor's 
Shop Management on time-study methods were 
written by Mr. Thompson. 

The practice of time study involves motion 

1 "Elementary Time Study as a Part of the Taylor System 
of Scientific Management," Industrial Engineering, vol. II, 
p. 85. 

2 "A Time Study under the Taylor System," American 
Machinist, vol. 35, p. 689. A good article is that by Mr. N. E. 
Adamson, Jr., "The Taking of Time Study Observations," 
Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 439. 

3 "Making Instruction Cards from Time Studies — How 
Time Study as a Part of Taylor System is Analyzed — Es-. 
tablishing Standard Times," Iron Age, March 11, 1915, p. 
560. 

4 "Notes on Time Studies," Industrial Engineering, Sep- 
tember, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 385-87- 

5 "Time Study and Task Work," Journal of Political Econ- 
omy, May, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 377~87- 



236 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

study. The aim of motion study is to determine 
the most effective motion to accomplish a de- 
sired result; and one of the elements in the 
determination of its effectiveness is the time it 
takes to execute it. Time study and motion 
study, therefore, go hand in hand, but it is not 
impossible to make an effective and profitable 
motion study without the use of any timing 
device. There is an interesting foreshadowing 
of modern motion study in an experiment car- 
ried out in 1837. This was described by Th. 
Lefevre, 1 a foreman in the famous printing 
plant of the Didots, who was struck with the 
fact that the traditional lay-out of the printer's 
case was not the one best adapted to the setting 
of type, in that usually the compositor -had to 
reach farthest for the most frequently used let- 
ters. Lefevre, therefore, redesigned the case 
with a view to the maximum economy of effort 
and, after a test of both lay-outs, adopted the 
revised case for his plant. After some years of 
struggle with the traditions of the printing fra- 
ternity, the new case was abandoned; but the 
experiment is a good early illustration of the 
application of motion study. 

The best descriptions of motion study as such 

1 Guide Pratique du Compositeur. (Paris, 1883, nouvelle 
edition.) 



THE LITERATURE 237 

are given by Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth. 1 Mr. Gil- 
breth endeavors to list the variables affecting 
the efficient performance of manual work, and 
to point out the extent of their influence. They 
are classed as variables of the worker, including 
anatomy, brawn, contentment, creed, earning 
power, experience, fatigue, habits, health, mode 
of living, nutrition, size, skill, temperament, 
and training; variables of the surroundings, 
including appliances, clothes, color, entertain- 
ment, heating, lighting, quality of material, 
rewards and penalties, size of unit moved, 
special fatigue-eliminating devices, surround- 
ings, tools, union rules, and weight of unit 
moved; variables of the motion, including 
acceleration, automaticity, combination with 
other motions, cost, direction, effectiveness, 
foot-pounds of work accomplished, inertia and 
momentum overcome, length, necessity, path, 
play for position, and speed. The application of 
motion study to operations so small that they 
cannot be noted by the human eye unaided is 
accomplished by means of moving pictures. 2 

1 Motion Study. (New York, 191 1.) See also chap, xiv of 
his Bricklaying System. (New York & Chicago, 1909.) 

2 "Micro- Motion Study — a New Development in Effi- 
ciency," Scientific American, vol. 108, p. 84. An illustration of 
the kind of results achieved is given by Mr. H. L. Gantt, 
"'Hipped' on Motion Study," Industrial Engineering, vol. 8, 
p. 307, and by Mr. William D. Ennis, "An Experiment in 



238 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Mr. Gilbreth has devoted a great deal of 
attention to the development of methods for 
the study and representation of motions. 1 
Among the ingenious appliances devised by 
him for this purpose should be mentioned his 
"chronocyclegraphs," the name he gives to 
photographs of motions taken by attaching 
small electric lights to the hands of the opera- 
tors in such a way that the course of the motion 
is recorded by the light on the negative as a 
continuous line. By introducing a circuit- 
breaker the light may be made to flash at inter- 
vals of a second or any fraction thereof and the 
photograph of the flash indicates the direction 
of the motion. 2 On the basis of these photo- 
graphs he has constructed " motion models," 
wire contrivances reproducing in three dimen- 
sions the lines in the photographs. 3 The appli- 

Motion Study," ibid., vol. 9, p. 462. Professor Walter D. 
Scott, "The Rate of Improvement in Efficiency," System, 
vol. 20, p. 155, presents a useful side-light on its application. 
The following articles show how it may be used in fields out- 
side manufacturing: Mr. E. M. Wooley's "Lost Motions in 
Retail Selling," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 366, 465, "Getting Out the 
Mail," ibid., p. 284, and Mr. J. G. Frederick and Mr. H. S. 
McCormack's "Motion Study in Office Work," ibid., p. 563. 

1 See Robert Thurston Kent, "Micro-motion Study in In- 
dustry," Iron Age, January 2, 1913, vol. 91, pp. 34-37. 

2 Chronocyclegraph Motion Devices for Measuring Achieve- 
ment. Second Pan-American Congress, Washington, D.C., 
1916. 

3 Motion Models : Their Use in the Transference of Experi- 
ence and the Presentation of Comparative Results in Educational 






THE LITERATURE 239 

cation of these studies to the reconstruction of 
work for soldiers crippled in the present war 
is indicated in two interesting articles. 1 In a 
recent book, Fatigue Study, there are further 
suggestions on the use and value of refined 
motion studies. 2 

Unfortunately, there is as yet no comprehen- 
sive study of industrial fatigue. Many inves- 
tigators have been working on the subject of 
human and animal fatigue, but their experi- 
ments have been carried on almost exclusively 
in physiological laboratories. A mass of valu- 
able data has been accumulated in this way, 
but there still remains an opportunity for some 
one familiar with the results of these researches 
to extend them to industrial conditions and 
determine the laws governing fatigue in indus- 
try. On the basis of such investigation practical 
rules may be developed for application to indus- 
trial and commercial conditions. 

The statement sometimes made that the 
founders of scientific management had formu- 
lated the laws of fatigue is altogether too 

Methods. American Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
ence, Columbus, 1 916. 

1 "Motion Study for the Crippled Soldier," Journal, 
A.S.M.E., December, 1915, p. 669; "Motion Study for Crip- 
pled Soldiers," American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, 19 16. 

2 Fatigue Study. (New York, 1916.) 



240 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

broad. The element of truth in it lies in the 
fact that in certain specific instances the length 
of time during which a carrier of materials 
should be under load has been determined, as 
in the famous case of "Schmidt, the pig-iron 
handler," and in a number of instances rough 
determinations of the proportion and distribu- 
tion of rest periods in the course of a day's 
work have been made. 1 In no instance, how- 
ever, to my knowledge, has this work been car- 
ried on by any one properly equipped with the 
necessary knowledge of physiology and anat- 
omy and of the present state of the science of 
fatigue. 

Motion study is spectacular in its nature and 
deceptively easy to grasp. It is not to be won- 
dered at, then, that there have been many sug- 
gestions of its application to housework, 2 but 
there is thus far no record of the practical re- 
sults when the stop-watch, the chronocycle- 

1 Frank C. Heard, "Turning Out More Work by Resting," 
Factory, July, 1912. 

2 Frank B. Gilbreth, "Motion Study in the Household; 
Reducing the Cost of Work in Effort and Time," Scientific 
American, April 13, 1912, vol. 106, p. 328; Florence Cushing, 
"Shop Methods Applied to Household Administration," 
Journal of Home Economics, November, 1910, vol. 2, pp. 581- 
82; Marie Urie Watson, "Scientific Housecleaning," Crafts- 
man, December, 1912, vol. 23, pp. 353-55; "Laboratory 
Motion Study " ; an editorial; Engineering and Mining Journal, 
February 17, 1912, vol. 93, p. 344. 



THE LITERATURE 241 

graph, and the motion model have been oper- 
ated on the cook and the housemaid. 1 

The result of properly directed time and mo- 
tion study is the standardization of methods and 
equipment to secure the largest output in the 
minimum time with no material increase of effort. 

Several good accounts of the effects of motion 
study have been published. 2 

Once standardization is effected, the method 
is reduced in detail to writing in the form of an 
instruction card 3 which is given the operator 
as a guide to the accomplishment of the pre- 
determined standard of production. 

The multiplicity of data from which instruc- 
tion cards are compiled must be reduced to such 

1 For an amusing and imaginative account of possibilities 
in this direction reference may be made to a series of stories 
about "Efficiency Edgar," which appeared in the Saturday 
Evening Post during 191 6. 

2 Robert T. Kent, "Motion Study in the Box Shop," In- 
dustrial Engineering, August, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 325-30; "Mo- 
tion Study for the Moveman," ibid., March, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 
99-102; Leo J. Cleary, "How Six Managers Saved Lost Mo- 
tion," Factory, November, 1912, vol. 9, pp. 408-09, 432; N. E. 
Adamson, Jr., "Production Betterment by Time Studies," 
Iron Age, April 4, 191 2, vol. 89, p. 835. 

3 These instruction cards are illustrated in the article by 
Mr. Hathaway on time study referred to above, and in the 
following: Mr. H. W. Reed's "Following a Fixed Schedule 
Under the Taylor System," American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 
1020; and "Two Turret Lathe Instruction Cards," ibid., vol. 
36, p. 915. See also Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth's "The Instruction 
Card as a Part of the Taylor Plan of Management," Industrial 
Engineering, vol. 11, p. 380. 



242 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

form that they can easily be made available. 
Particularly is this true in the case of the condi- 
tions affecting the most economical cutting of 
metal. The vast body of information on this 
subject, as given in such a work as Mr. Tay- 
lor's " Art of Cutting Metals/' 1 must, for prac- 
tical purposes, be made handy for use by the 
instruction-card man. This is the purpose of 
the slide rules devised and described by Mr. 
Carl G. Barth. 2 Mr. Barth shows how the 
same methods by which slide rules for the solu- 
tion of ordinary mathematical problems have 
been constructed, may be applied to the con- 
struction of slide rules for the solution of the 
more complicated mathematical problems in- 
volved in the determination of the proper speed, 
feed, and depth of cut for machine tools. Tech- 
nical details of the results of these methods are 
given in a highly interesting series of articles 
by Mr. L. P. Alford. 3 

1 Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 31. 

2 "Slide Rules as Part of the Taylor System," Transactions, 
A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 49. See also L. Descroix, Les regies et 
cercles & calcul de Fred W. Taylor et Carl G. Barth pour V applica- 
tion du Sysfeme de Taylor dans V atelier mecanique (Dunot et 
Pinat, Paris, 1908); Fr. Selter, "Ueber einen Versuch mit dem 
Taylor-Kalkulationssystem in Deutschland," Werkstattstech- 
nik, 1910, pp. 129-41 ; R. Poliakoff, "Charts for Taylor's Cut- 
ting Speeds and Feeds," American Machinist, November 26, 
1914, vol. 41, pp. 935-36. 

3 "The Respeeding of Lathes," American Machinist, vol. 
41, no. 23, p. 973; "The Respeeding of Machine Tools," ibid., 



THE LITERATURE 243 

In spite of the fact that standardization is 
so fundamental a feature of scientific manage- 
ment, not much of consequence has been writ- 
ten on the subject. 1 In an article by Mr. P. 
Ballard, 2 the movement is criticized as not 
scientific, because its standardization methods 
stand in the way of progress. This illustrates a 
common fallacy in the discussion of standard- 
ization as that term is used by the scientific 
managers. It must be understood that stand- 
ardization in their sense does not mean stand- 
ardization of product, which is the common 

vol. 41, no. 24, pp. 1017-21; "Standard Boring-Bar Cutters, 
Gibs, and Keys," ibid., vol. 41, no. 27, p. 1148; "Standardizing 
Lathe Tool Posts," ibid., vol. 41, no. 25, p. 1062; "Standard 
Taper Sockets and Shanks," ibid., vol. 41, no. 25, pp. 11 12-15. 

1 The best available are in the articles by Mr. Charles Day, 
"Advanced Practice of Economical Metal Cutting," Engi- 
neering Magazine, vol. 27, p. 549; Keppele Hall, "The Stand- 
ardization of Papers," Paper, January 19, 1916; Robert T. 
Kent, "Scientific Management in the Office, " Iron Age, Jan- 
uary 7, 1915, vol. 95, no. 1, p. 82; Carl Bennett Auel, "Stand- 
ardization in the Factory," Iron Age, December 3, 1914, vol. 
94, no. 23, p. 1280; and in a book : by Mr. C. U. Carpenter, 
Profit-Making Management. (New York, 1908.) There is a 
brief but suggestive article by Mr. E. M. Wooley on "Scien- 
tific Management in the Office," System, vol. 20, p. 3, dealing 
with the standardization of office equipment and supplies, and 
a characteristic note by Mr. Frank E. Gilbreth on "The First 
Case of Standardization," Transactions, The Efficiency Soci- 
ety, vol. 1, p. 257, taking the shape of a brick as his ex- 
ample. 

2 "Scientific Management and Science," Cassier's Magazine, 
vol. 41, p. 425. See also Henry Harrison Suplee, "Some Basic 
Principles of Efficiency," Cassier's Magazine, September, 
1912, vol. 42, pp. 233-38. 



244 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

acceptance of the term, but the determination 
of the best material, equipment, and process 
discoverable at any given time and adherence 
to it until a better is found. So far from stand- 
ing in the way of progress, this conception 
of standardization rather stimulates and aids 
more rapid improvement, for it makes possible 
substantial improvements on the solid basis 
of what is already known, instead of the labo- 
rious rediscovery of methods already worked 
out and even, perhaps, abandoned for good 
cause. 

In the Taylor System, the term " routing" 
has two significations. Sometimes it refers to 
the physical lay-out of plants and the relation- 
ship of departments, — in this sense it is most 
completely treated by Mr. Charles Day; l 
more usually, however, it is concerned with the 
analysis of the sequence of operations on the 
work and the determination of the place and 
time for each operation and group of opera- 
tions. On this latter, the most intricate feature 
of the system, little has been published out- 
side of Mr. Taylor's Shop Management. 2 

1 Industrial Plants. (New York, 191 1.) 

2 The only references of consequence outside the books are 
the articles by Mr. H. L. Gantt, "The Mechanical Engineer 
and the Textile Industry," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 32, 
p. 499; C. W. Adams, "Planning Work Ahead to Save Time," 
Factory, February, 1909; A. Wallichs, "Taylors Erfolg auf den 



THE LITERATURE 245 

Another characteristic feature of the Taylor 
System is the extensive use of classification and 
mnemonic symbolization. A series of articles 
by the present writer points out the purposes 
and methods of classification and mnemonic 
symbolization and its application to the various 
functions of costs, administration, stores sys- 
tem, routing, and filing. 1 

The use of the mnemonic system for facili- 
tating the finding of costs has been described 
in a brief article. 2 

Although the Taylor System has a distinctive 
type of cost accounting, its details have not 
been published. The first part of Mr. Holden 

Gebiete der Fabrikorganization," Stahl und Eisen, 19 12, no. 2, 
Diisseldorf; J. A. Furer, "Management in the Drafting- 
Room," American Machinist, April 25, 1912, vol. 36, pp. 662- 
65; H. C. Wight, " Routing Work by Schedule," Factory, May, 
1912, vol. 8, p. 358. 

1 C. B. Thompson, "Giving a Business a Memory," System, 
vol. 22, p. 588; "Memory Tags for Business Facts," ibid., vol. 
23, p. 21; "Taking Factory Costs Apart," ibid., p. 131; "List- 
ing Stock to Index Wastes," ibid., p. 260; "Keeping Tab on 
Finished Parts," ibid., p. 386; "Right Filing and Easy Find- 
ing," ibid., p. 586. 

The only other article on the subject is a brief abstract of a 
paper by Mr. H. G. Benedict, "The Mnemonic Symbolizing 
of Stores under Scientific Management," Industrial Engineer- 
ing, vol. 12, pp. 24, 69. Reference should be made to an early 
article by Oberlin Smith, "Naming and Symbolizing," Engi- 
neering Magazine, June, 191 1, vol. 41, pp. 461-70, reprinted 
from Transactions, A.S.M.E., 1882. 

2 "A Mnemonic System for Distributing Labor Costs on 
Construction Work," Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 328 
(anonymous). 



246 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

A. Evans's book 1 deals with the subject, but 
not exactly in the manner in which it is prac- 
ticed by the Taylor group. 2 

In a recent book on factory costs some de- 
tails of the Taylor System are indicated. 3 The 
best description of the Taylor methods for a 
machine shop is to be found in a book by Ru- 
dolph Seubert, referred to above. 4 Some details 
of the application of these methods to rein- 
forced concrete work are given in an article by 
John S. Nicholl. 5 The general attitude of the 
Taylor group toward current cost-accounting 
methods is well indicated in the articles by H. 
L. Gantt. 6 A good example of the influence of 

1 Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. (New York, 191 1.) 

8 Mr. A. Hamilton Church's, The Proper Distribution of 
Expense Burden (New York, 1908), and Production Factors 
(New York, 19 10), describe a method arrived at by him quite 
independently, which has been used in part for some time by 
the Taylor group. There is a brief anonymous article on "Cost 
and Time Keeping Outfit of the Taylor System," American 
Machinist, vol. 29, p. 761, and another by Mr. Charles J. 
Simeon on "The Scientific Management of a Foundry," Iron 
Trade Review, vol. 50, p. 68, which deal with some of the 
mechanical details. 

8 C. B. Thompson, How to Find Factory Costs. (Chicago, 
A. W. Shaw Co., 1916.) 

4 Aus der Praxis des Taylor- Systems. (J. Springer, Berlin, 
1914.) 

6 "Scientific Cost-Keeping Methods for Reinforced Con- 
crete Work — The Field and Office System of the Aberthaw 
Construction Company," Engineering Magazine, January, 
1913, vol. 44, pp. 511-25. 

6 " Non-Productive Labor — The Fallacy of Its Use as a 
Measure of Efficient Operation," Engineering Magazine, Jan- 



THE LITERATURE 247 

scientific management on accounting methods 
is a recent book by E. T. Elbourne based on 
English practice. 1 

The Taylor method of administering a tool 
room is admirably described by Mr. R. T. 
Kent, 2 emphasizing the importance of stand- 
ardization, classification, maintenance, and con- 
trol. The administration of belting is discussed 
by Mr. F. W. Taylor. 3 

Attention has often been called to the fact that 
the second cardinal principle in Mr. Taylor's 
system, the scientific selection and training of 
employees, has received no systematic treatment 
at the hands of the Taylor group, at least so far as 
selection is concerned. Training is duly empha- 
sized and illustrated by Mr. Gantt in his Work, 
Wages, and Profits referred to above. There are 
two good popular articles on the subject by Mr. 
E. M. Wooley, "The One Best Way," and "The 
Wanton Waste of Labor," referred to above. 4 

uary, 1915, p. 577; "The Misleading Effect of Wrong Stand- 
ards," Industrial Engineering, May, 1913, vol. 13, p. 202; 
Editorial on Gantt's "Measuring Efficiency," American 
Machinist, vol. 41, no. 24, p. 1047. 

1 Factory A dministration and A ccounts. (Longmans, Green & 
Co., London, 1914.) 

2 "The Tool Room under Scientific Management," Indus- 
trial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 87. 

3 "Notes on Belting," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 15, p. 
204. 

4 See also Harry F. Porter, "Showing Unskilled Labor 
'How,'" Factory, October, 1914, vol. 13, pp. 268, 311-14. 



248 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

There has been some preliminary discussion 
of the application of scientific methods to the 
selection of employees, but it has been on the 
part of men influenced by, but as a rule not di- 
rectly connected with, the movement. Profes- 
sor Walter Dill Scott * has written interestingly 
on the subject, as has also Mr. R. J. Burke. 2 
Mr. Gilbreth has suggested a simple plan for 
systematizing promotions. 3 A movement for the 
more intelligent guidance of youth in the selec- 
tion of vocations has brought in its train a study, 
as yet rather superficial, of the requirements of 
various trades and professions. It is at least an 
excellent beginning in the right direction. 4 

The only thing I have found on the selection 
of employees by any one even remotely con- 
nected with scientific management is a pam- 
phlet by Mr. Harrington Emerson, 5 and this is 

1 "Selection of Employees by Means of Quantitative Deter- 
minations," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
Science, vol. 65, p. 182, 1916. 

2 "Written Specifications for Hiring," Annals, American 
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 176, 1916. 
See also "Labor Problems in Scientific Management," Iron 
Age, December 10, 1914, vol. 94, p. 1369 (anonymous). 

3 "The Three Position Plan of Promotion," Annals, Ameri- 
can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 289, 
1916. 

4 Frank Parsons, Choosing a Vocation. (Boston, Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co., 1909.) Meyer Bloomfield, Vocational Guidance 
of Youth. (Boston, 191 1.) 

6 The Scientific Selection of Employees. (The Emerson 
Company, New York.) 



THE LITERATURE 249 

an argument for the application of a system of 
selection which can be characterized only as 
a refined and slightly modernized phrenology, 
described in a book by the originators, Dr. 
Katherine M. H. Blackford and Mr. Arthur 
Newcomb. 1 

It is evident from this survey that the liter- 
ature dealing with the actual methods of apply- 
ing scientific management, while still far from 
complete, is growing into a respectable volume. 
The slowness with which these details are made 
public is due to a number of factors, one among 
which is the natural reluctance of specialists to 
divulge the details of their profession, because 
of their apparently well-grounded fear that the 
attempt to describe methods which must be 
modified to meet a wide variety of contingen- 
cies must necessarily be inadequate and to a 
certain extent misleading, and that therefore it 
is safer not to attempt at all to describe them in 
writing. In view, however, of the rapid exten- 
sion of scientific management to many varieties 
of industries, and the comparative scarcity of 
qualified "experts," it appears that the time is 
ripe for such an exposition of methods as may 
be immediately and directly useful to any man- 
ager of the requisite intelligence to sense their 

1 The Job, the Man, the Boss. (New York, 19 14.) 



250 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

place in the system and to apply them with the 
thoroughness and discretion necessary. 

This criticism of meagerness does not apply 
to one of the principal methods of scientific 
management — the use of wages as an incen- 
tive. There is nothing new about such use of 
wages, but the method of the Taylor group is 
characteristically different. With them wages 
are not used primarily as an incentive to pro- 
duction but as an incentive to the acceptance 
of standardized conditions and training and the 
following of instructions. Increased production 
is the direct result not of the bonus or differ- 
ential piece rate systems but of the utilization 
by the employee, in consideration of higher 
wages, of the improved methods, materials and 
equipment provided him by the management. 
This was the point, though it is not made very 
clear, in Mr. Taylor's paper on "A Piece-Rate 
System and Shop Management' ' referred to 
above, and it runs all through Mr. Gantt's 
Work, Wages, and Profits. 1 

1 This is brought out a little better by Mr. Harrington Em- 
erson in a paper on "A Rational Basis for Wages," Transac- 
tions, A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 868. Out of the mass of books and 
articles on this subject, the following are also suggested, not 
necessarily because they are written by members of the Taylor 
group, which few of them are, but because a study of them will 
help make clear the philosophy of the use of wage systems by 
that group. The following are comparative discussions of vari- 
ous methods of wage payment: Mr. S. E. Thompson's "The 



THE LITERATURE 251 



5. The Personal Factor in Scientific 

Management 

The apparently cold-blooded statements of 
Mr. Taylor in Shop Management and The Prin- 
ciples of Scientific Management in regard to his 
methods of training employees and the mathe- 
matical determination of the incentives which 
actuate their conduct have led to a considerable 
discussion of the treatment of the "human fac- 
tor" by scientific management. Discussion is 

Taylor Differential Piece Rate System," Engineering Maga- 
zine, vol. 20, p. 617; "Differential Piece Rates" (anonymous), 
Engineering, vol. 80, p. 413; Mr. Clive Hastings's "The Effi- 
ciency of the Worker and His Rate of Pay," American Engineer 
and Railroad Journal, vol. 81, p. 238; Mr. Harrington Emer- 
son's "Different Plans of Paying Employees," Iron Age, vol, 
82, p. 1150; and Mr. C. B. Thompson's "The Reason for a 
Payroll," System, vol. 22, p. 249, and "When Higher Wages 
Pay," ibid., p. 339. See also Sanford E. Thompson, "Time- 
Study and Task Work," Journal of Political Economy, May, 
1913, vol. 21, pp. 377-87; H. L. Gantt, "Equitable Labor Com- 
pensation and Maximum Output," Cassier's Magazine, vol. 25, 
pp. 540-45, April, 1904; C. J. Morrison, "Short-Sighted 
Methods in Dealing with Labor," Engineering Magazine, vol. 
46, no. 4, pp. 566-70; J. T. Towlson, "A British View of Shop 
Efficiency," American Machinist, August 24, 191 1, vol. 35, 
pp. 361. To get one's bearings in the discussion, the articles 
by Messrs. Towne, Halsey, and Rowan, referred to above, 
should be read, and the following: Mr. W. O. Walker's "The 
Value of Incentives," American Machinist, vol. 26, p. 996; and 
Mr. C. J. Morrison's "Piece Rates versus Bonus," ibid., vol. 
36, p. 178. Highly interesting in this connection are also Mr. 
Carroll D. Wright's Profit-Sharing, Bureau of Statistics of 
Labor, no. 15; and the Report of the British Board of Trade on 
Profit Sharing and Labour Co-Partnership in the United King- 
dom. (London, 19 12.) 



252 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

usually based on the truisms that system can- 
not take the place of honesty and intelligence; 
that specialization can be carried too far; that 
driving is an undesirable feature of factory 
management; that the workmen should not be 
made into automata; that they should not be 
set working against each other's interests; that 
attention should not be centered exclusively 
upon men above the average of ability; that the 
factors of habit and prejudice should not be 
ignored ; that no solution of economic problems 
is complete which ignores the problem of dis- 
tribution ; and that the desires and aspirations 
of the men toward self-government and democ- 
racy must be recognized. Most of these points 
are mentioned in the Report of the House Com- 
mittee on Labor appointed to investigate the Tay- 
lor and other Systems of Management, 1 leading 
to the conclusion that no recommendations 
were necessary, presumably because the criti- 
cisms suggested did not apply to the Taylor 
System. 

The importance of a consideration of the 
human problem is emphasized by Mr. William 
C. Redfield. 2 Mr. James M. Dodge, formerly 
chairman of the Link Belt Company, whose 

1 Government Printing Office, Washington, 19 12. 

2 "The Moral Value of Scientific Management," Atlantic 
Monthly, vol. no, p. 411. 



THE LITERATURE 253 

recent death has deprived scientific manage- 
ment of one of its foremost advocates, and the 
workingmen in his extensive plant of one of 
their best friends, was always insisting on the 
importance of a just mental attitude toward 
the human factor. 1 Interesting and convincing 
illustrations of the practical application of this 
attitude are given by Mr. Feiss, the manager of 
a large clothing factory. 2 

The nature of the psychological problems in- 
volved and an indication of the method of ap- 
proach to their solution are discussed at some 
length by Professor Hugo Mtinsterberg. 3 The 
significance of the work begun by Mr. Taylor 
and his associates as it appears to a psycholo- 

1 "Industrial Management," Industrial Engineering, Au- 
gust, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 330-32. See also F. G. Coburn, "Labor- 
Saving Management and the Present," American Machinist, 
vol. 40, no. 2, p. 78, and Robert T. Kent, "Enlisting the Fore- 
men's Cooperation," Industrial Engineering, July, 1913, vol. 
13, pp. 285-88. 

2 "Personal Relationship as a Basis of Scientific Manage- 
ment," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
Science, vol. 65, p. 27, 1916. See the review, "The Beginnings 
of a New Science," Survey, April 19, 1913, vol. 30, pp. 95-96. 

3 Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. (Boston, 1913.) See 
also Professor Miinsterberg's interesting article, "Psychology 
and the Navy," North American Review, February, 1913, vol. 
!97» PP- i59 _ 8o; Gilbreth's The Psychology of Management 
(New York, Sturgis & Walton, 1914); and Horatio Willis 
Dresser's Human Efficiency; A Psychological Study of Modern 
Problems (New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912). The latter 
is a highly transcendental study of individual efficiency from a 
psychological standpoint. 



254 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

gist is emphasized, and examples are given of 
the more refined methods by which the psy- 
chological laboratory may be made an aid in 
the discovery of principles for industrial appli- 
cation. 1 

In a remarkable book by Miss Josephine 
Goldmark, 2 there is a suggestion that, although 
scientific management has thus far avoided the 
pitfall of driving, there has not been the inten- 

1 The fear that scientific management is an effort to substi- 
tute a system for integrity and ability is voiced by Mr. F. J. 
Whiting in "The Personal Equation in Scientific Manage- 
ment," Stone & Webster's Journal, vol. 8, p. 411. The fear of 
over-specialization finds expression in an editorial in Engineer- 
ing (London) on "Scientific Management," vol. 93, p. 289, and 
is apparently the point of an article by Dr. Luther H. Gulick 
on "The Human Element," Transactions, The Efficiency So- 
ciety, vol. 1, p. 181, and of one by Mr. A. Hamilton Church on 
"Intensive Production and the Foreman," American Machin- 
ist, vol. 34, p. 830. The answer to these may be deduced from 
Mr. M. P. Higgins's " Intensified Production and its Influence 
upon the Worker," Engineering Magazine, vol. 20, p. 468; Mr. 
Frank H. Rose's "The Rise of Labor Through Labor-Saving 
Machinery," ibid., vol. 27, p. 836; Mr. A. E. Outerbridge, Jr.'s 
"The Educational Influence of Machinery," ibid., vol. 9, p. 
225; "The Emancipation of Labor by Machinery," ibid., p. 
1012, and especially Frank B. and L. M. Gilbreth's "The Ef- 
fect of Motion Study upon the Workers," Annals, American 
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 272, 1916. 
The value of scientific management in finding the place to 
which the laborer is best fitted and in fitting the man perfectly 
to fill it is emphasized in an editorial in Machinery, "Helping 
a Man to Find His Place," vol. 18, p. 279; in Mr. David Van 
Alstyne's "Profitable Ethics," in Technology and Industrial 
Efficiency, p. 207 (New York, 191 1); and in Mr. Harrington 
Emerson's "Ethics and Wages," Outlook, vol. 99, p. 682. 

2 Fatigue and Efficiency. (The Russell Sage Foundation. 
New York, 1912.) 



THE LITERATURE 255 

sive and scientific study of fatigue which might 
reasonably be expected from the scientific atti- 
tude of the leaders in the movement. Mr. F. H. 
Dwight * insists that the bonus, as applied at 
the Bethlehem Steel Works, is but another 
method of driving. The completest answer to 
the criticism of practice, no matter what may 
be said in regard to the absence of a scientific 
study of fatigue, is made by Clark and Wyatt, 2 
who give the results of an intensive investiga- 
tion of the effect of the Taylor System on 
women employed under it. This inquiry, begun 
with the expectation of finding the science of 
driving reduced to practice, ended after ex- 
haustive personal study in many plants in a 
complete exoneration of the Taylor-Gantt 
methods from this charge. 3 A study of the 
methods pursued in a scientific management 
plant will go still further to dispel this illusion. 4 
The criticism that scientific management 

1 "The Taylor System as a Machinist Sees It," American 
Machinist, vol. 34, p. 989. 

2 Making Both Ends Meet. (New York, 191 1.) See espe- 
cially chap. viii. 

* Other significant articles on the same subject are: "Scien- 
tific Management as viewed from the Workmen's Standpoint," 
Industrial Engineering, vol. 8, p. 377, and Mr. Wilfred Lewis's 
"F. W. Taylor and the Steel Mills," American Machinist, 
vol. 34, p. 655. 

4 Richard A. Feiss, "The Health Factor in Output," Fac- 
tory, December, 1914, p. 399, vol. 13, no. 6. 



256 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

suppresses the initiative and ambition of the 
workman is presented by Mr. Frank C. Hud- 
son 1 and further discussed by Mr. Holden A. 
Evans, 2 and particularly and most effectively 
by Mr. Charles B. Going 3 who points out that 
one distinctive feature of the modern systems 
of management is the restoration of the indi- 
viduality of the workman. 

The complaint that the effect of the task and 
bonus method is to concentrate the efforts of 
each workman exclusively upon his own success 
and well-being, has not been dignified with a 
formal article, but is given expression occasion- 
ally in the hearings before the House Commit- 
tee on Labor. It is pretty effectively answered 
in an article by Lieutenant E. D. K. Klyce, 4 
which points out the absolute necessity of 
mutual helpfulness and cooperation in the 
Taylor System. 

Mr. Taylor talks so much about the "first 
class man" and has emphasized so little his 
explanation that by the first class man he 

1 "The Machinist's Side of Taylorism," American Machin- 
ist, vol. 34, P- 773- 

8 "Effect of the Taylor System: What is to Become of the 
Mechanic?" ibid., vol. 33, p. 1095. 

8 "The Efficiency of Labor," Review of Reviews, vol. 46, 

P. 329. 

4 "Scientific Management and the Moral Law," Outlook, 
vol. 99, P- 659- 



THE LITERATURE 257 

means the man adapted to the job he is doing, 
that the supposition is only natural that this 
system aims at the selection of the best only 
and the elimination of the average and medi- 
ocre. 1 

The undue haste with which outside follow- 
ers of scientific management have attempted 
to revolutionize the methods and habits of 
thought of workmen and employers has called 
forth impressive and valuable warnings from 
Mr. James Hartness. 2 

Mr. Gantt has given some excellent practical 
advice to managers as to the scope and nature 
of the qualifications they should possess, which 
is particularly applicable in case they are con- 
sidering the development of scientific manage- 
ment in their plants. 3 

The relation of scientific management to 

1 Illustrations given by Mr. Taylor do unquestionably show 
the strongly selective effect of his method; but this should not 
be allowed to distract attention from the effect of systematic 
training on the development of average and mediocre into 
"first class" men. This misunderstanding underlies the criti- 
cism in Mr. John R. Godfrey's "Eliminating the Inefficient 
Man," American Machinist, vol. 34, p. 1232. 

2 " The Factor of Habit," Transactions, The Efficiency So- 
ciety, vol. 1, p. 237. Still more effective is his book, The Hu- 
man Factor in Works Management. (New York, 1912.) 

8 Industrial Leadership. (Yale University Press, 19 16.) 
Reviewed by C. B. Thompson, American Economic Review, 
vol. 6, no. 2, p. 380, 1916. See also H. L. Gantt, "The Meeting 
of Minds in Engineering," American Machinist, vol. 41, no. 5, 
p. 212. 



258 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

larger social problems is hinted at by Mr. Tay- 
lor in The Principles of Scientific Management, 
and the ultimate bearing of the application of 
the system to social welfare, through the reduc- 
tion of the cost of production and the increase 
of the purchasing power of the consumer, is 
briefly suggested. Mr. Gilbreth points out the 
effect of motion study as an increase of national 
wealth. 1 Professor Nearing shows the relation 
between the cost of living and efficiency. 2 E. P. 
Howes gives an example (perhaps imaginative) 
of the general effect of efficient methods on 
wages, living conditions, and the civic aspect 
of the community. 3 

If it could be supposed that the tendencies 
inherent in the system would be allow.ed to 
work themselves out to their logical conclu- 
sions, social and economic consequences of a 
far-reaching nature would reasonably be ex- 
pected. This possibility has raised unduly the 
hopes and enthusiasm of some of the advocates 
of the movement and has brought down upon 
it the criticism of those calmer individuals who 

1 "Motion Study as an Increase of National Wealth," 
Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
vol. 59, p. 96. 

2 "Efficiency Wage Standards," Popular Science Monthly, 
March, 1912, vol. 80, pp. 257-62. 

3 "^Esthetic Value of Efficiency," Atlantic Monthly, July, 
1912, vol. no, pp. 81-91. 



THE LITERATURE 259 

realize, in the first place, that no economic tend- 
ency ever does or can work out to its logical 
conclusion, and, in the second place and par- 
ticularly, that production and consumption are 
but a part of the entire economic problem. 

A few exceptionally thoughtful articles crit- 
icizing scientific management from the social 
point of view have been written by Euro- 
pean scholars on the basis of an academic 
knowledge of the movement. There is a 
friendly criticism discussing social advantages 
and possible objections by Wilhelm Koch- 
mann. 1 Another excellent criticism is that by 
E. Lederer. 2 J. M. Lahy has written a keen 
criticism of some elements in the system point- 
ing out particularly the comparative neglect of 
the element of fatigue. 3 A Spanish scholar, C. 
Montoliu, has reviewed most of the European 
and some of the American literature on the 
subject. 4 

1 " Das Taylorsystem und seine volkswirtschaftliche Bedeu- 
tung," Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, March, 
1914, vol. 38, p. 391. 

2 "Die oconomische und sozialpolitische Bedeutung des 
Taylorsystems," Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpoli- 
tik, May, 1914, vol. 38, p. 769. 

3 "La Methode Taylor peut-elle determiner une Organiza- 
tion scientifique du Travail," Grande Revue, September 25, 

1913, P- 345- 

4 "El Sistema de Taylor y Su Critica," Estudio. (1915. 
Barcelona.) 



260 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

Those who are looking for a panacea for so- 
cial ills and who suppose that scientific man- 
agement was offered as such a panacea are keen 
to point out that it does not deal finally with 
the problem of distribution. Professor Edward 
D. Jones 1 was acute enough to see that Tay- 
lor's work developed a principle of distributive 
justice, — namely, the rewarding of the indi- 
vidual for his individual performance, — and 
was not disappointed that it did not go farther 
in this matter than it professed to go. Mr. 
Dexter S. Kimball, in the article mentioned 
above, Mr. Ralph E. Flanders, 2 and Mr. W. H. 
Herschel 3 have pointed out, with the air of 
making a discovery, that the Taylor System 
does not solve the problem of distribution. 
Mr. Louis Duchey 4 hails the failure of the 
system to solve the system of distribution and 
its one-sided emphasis on production as the force 
which will do most to intensify class conscious- 
ness and hasten the destruction of capitalism. 

1 "Review of Taylor's 'Shop Management,'" American 
Economic Review, vol. 2, p. 369. 

2 "Scientific Management from a Social and Economic 
Standpoint," Machinery, vol. 18, p. 764. 

8 "Social Philosophy and the Taylor System — Will the 
Ultimate Result of the Taylor System be Beneficial?" Engi- 
neering News (London), vol. 65, p. 577. 

4 "Scientific Business Management. What is it? What 
Effect will it have on the Revolutionary Movement?" Inter- 
national Socialist Review, vol. 11, p. 628. 






THE LITERATURE 261 

The relation of scientific management to the 
unemployment problem has received attention 
in two articles by M. L. Cooke * and one by Mr. 
C. E. Reitzel. 2 

The test of democracy has of course been 
applied to this movement. That a clear defini- 
tion of democracy as applied in industry is 
sadly needed has been indicated in an excellent 
article by President Hopkins. 3 Mr. Meyer 
Bloomfield 4 points out, apparently with some 
misgiving, that the loyalty of the employee 
must be secured by keeping the enterprise dem- 
ocratic; while Mr. Paul U. Kellogg, 5 one of the 
editors of the Survey, is more specific to the 
effect that this new industrial force must be 
socialized. Mr. H. B. Drury is still more spe- 
cific when he demands that scientific manage- 
ment must recognize the function of free play 

1 "Scientific Management as a Solution of the Unemploy- 
ment Problem," Annals, American Academy of Political and 
Social Science, vol. 61, 1915. " Casual and Chronic Unemploy- 
ment," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
Science, vol. 59, p. 194. Reviewed in La Revue Ulectrique, 
May 19, 1916. 

2 " Industrial Output and Social Efficiency," A nnals, Ameri- 
can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 59, p. 125. 

8 Ernest Martin Hopkins, "Democracy and Industry," 
Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
vol. 65, p. 57, 1916. 

4 "Scientific Management: Cooperative or One-Sided," 
Survey, vol. 28, p. 312. 

6 "A National Hearing for Scientific Management," Survey, 
vol. 25, p. 409. 



262 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

from below. 1 Mr. Frank T. Carlton 2 goes still 
farther by pointing out how the movement 
should be made democratic by giving the work- 
man a voice in the determination of the condi- 
tions and the rate of bonus under which he will 
work. Scant agreement with this conception 
can be found in the writings of Taylor. His 
attitude and that of men of similar training and 
experience 3 is that the employee has no right 
to control or participate in the management of 
the establishment. If this is strictly true, there 
is obviously in scientific management no place 
for recognition of trade-unionism, the collective 
bargain, and other mutually agreed arrange- 
ments. 

6. Scientific Management and Organized 
Labor 

The attitude of Mr. Taylor and his immedi- 
ate followers toward labor organization is diffi- 
cult to determine from their writings. Thus 
Taylor says, in Shop Management: "There is no 
reason why labor unions should not be so con- 

1 " Democracy as a Factor in Industrial Efficiency, " A finals t 
American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, 
p. 15, 1916. 

2 "Scientific Management and the Wage-Earner," Journal 
of Political Economy, vol. 20, p. 834. 

3 "The Human Element in Scientific Management," by 
Messrs. H. R. Towne, Oberlin Smith, John Calder, A. C. Hig- 
gins, and A. Falkenau, Iron Age, vol. 89, p. 912. 



THE LITERATURE 263 

stituted as to be a great help both to employers 
and men. Unfortunately, as they now exist 
they are in many, if not most, cases a hinder- 
ance to the prosperity of both." He acknowl- 
edges the current obligation of society to 
organized labor for increased safety, shorter 
hours and in some cases better working condi- 
tions. It appears to be his belief, however, that 
where scientific management is practiced fully 
and completely, the workingman is automati- 
cally protected by the self-interest of his em- 
ployer, owing to the fact that the administra- 
tion of the task and bonus is dependent on the 
willing cooperation of the man and the main- 
tenance of his efficiency through the complete 
standardization of conditions. Nowhere is he 
very clear, however, on the practicability of the 
collective bargain in a scientifically managed 
regime; while on the other hand he is definite 
and forceful in his denunciation of some of the 
methods of unionism, particularly the restric- 
tion of output. 

Whatever Mr. Taylor's real view of the mat- 
ter may be, the fact is that the labor unions 
have taken a violent antipathy to scientific 
management. 1 This is at least partly due to 

1 The best of the articles ont his subject are the following: 
E. Pouget, L 'Organisation du surmenage (le systeme Taylor). 
(Paris: Riviere, 191 3.) A biting criticism of the entire move- 



264 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

what one writer calls Mr. Taylor's "unfortu- 
nate and tactless statements " * in regard to 
labor. There are, however, other and more fun- 
damental reasons for this lack of agreement. 
An anonymous writer in the Electrical Rail- 
way Journal 2 points out that specialization, 
through its easy training of the unskilled, 
strikes at the heart of labor unionism as at 
present organized. An editorial in the World's 
Work 3 prophesies that "the foolish unions will 
oppose it as they opposed the introduction of 
machinery, and lose." The Century Magazine 4 
observes that the labor union insists upon 
"equality." Mr. G. F. Stratton, in the Out- 
look, 3 finds the point of divergence in the fact 

ment by Angelo Mariotti, II Sistema Taylor e Vorgariizzazione 
scientifica, don Marzio, June 20, 19 14, who reviews briefly 
German and French Syndicalist criticism. Howard T. Lewis, 
"The Problem of the Efficiency of Labor," Popular Science 
Monthly, vol. 82, pp. 153-62, February, 1913. Harlow S. Per- 
son and others, "Industrial Efficiency and the Interests of 
Labor," American Economic Review, March, 1912, supplement, 
vol. 2, pp. 117-30, and two highly optimistic articles by H. 
Godfrey: "Attitude of Labor towards Scientific Management," 
Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
1912, vol. 44, p. 59, and Increased Efficiency, Brotherhood of 
Railway Mechanics, Convention Number, 1912. 

1 Mr. C. H. Stilson, "Letter on Scientific Management," 
American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 175. 

2 "Scope of Scientific Management," vol. 41, p. 451. 

3 "Scientific Management and the Labor Unions," vol. 22, 
p. I43H- 

4 "Taking Ambition out of the Workman," vol. 82, p. 462. 
6 "Ca-Canny and Speeding Up," vol. 99, p. 120. 



THE LITERATURE 265 

that the unions set a minimum wage which the 
employers treat as a maximum. The chief rea- 
son, however, appears to be found in the policy 
of restriction of output. The belief that restric- 
tion of output is a confirmed labor-union policy 
is apparently borne out by the Eleventh Special 
Report of the United States Commissioner of 
Labor, on the " Regulation and Restriction of 
Output," 1 — one of those Government reports 
which, like the Report on the Hearings before 
the Labor Committee investigating the Taylor 
System and the Report of the Civilian Expert 
Board on Industrial Management of United 
States Navy Yards, which favored the applica- 
tion of scientific management to the navy 
yards, was suddenly and mysteriously "out of 
print" almost immediately after publication. 

As was seen in an earlier section, railroads in 
their controversy with the scientific managers 
have not hesitated to point to the opposition of 
the labor unions as one of the reasons for the 
impracticability of the application of the sys- 
tem to their industry, and to substantiate their 
argument, as in an article in the Iron Age, 2 
by quoting the restrictive laws of such an or- 

1 Government Printing Office, Washington, 1904. 

2 "Railroad Efficiency and the Labor Unions," vol. 87, 
p. 476. 



266 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

ganization as the International Iron Molders* 
Union. 1 

The published expressions of labor-union 
leaders referring directly to scientific manage- 
ment have ranged from an attitude of sus- 
pended judgment to one of bitter antipathy. 
Mr. John Golden, of the Textile Workers, 2 is 
non-committal, but suspicious. Mr. J. P. Frey, 
of the Iron Molders, 3 is sure that it is at least 
unscientific. Mr. James Duncan, vice-presi- 
dent of the American Federation of Labor, 4 
conveys the impression that scientific manage- 
ment is the summation of all the evils of all the 
generations of oppression of the workingman. 
Yet this opinion is mild compared with that of 
the before-mentioned Mr. James O'Connell 
(formerly a member of the National Commis- 
sion on Industrial Relations, which also "inves- 

1 Other interesting articles on the attitude of the unions 
toward premium plans are those by Mr. H. M. Norris, "Actual 
Experience with the Premium Plan," Engineering Magazine, 
vol. 18, pp. 572, 689, and Mr. James O'Connell, "Piece Work 
not Necessary for Best Results in the Machine Shop," ibid., 
vol. 19, p. 373. 

2 "The Attitude of Organized Labor," Journal of Account- 
ancy, vol. 12, p. 189. 

8 "Relation of Scientific Management to Labor," Iron 
Trade Review, vol. 52, p. 917, and in Journal of Political Econ- 
omy, May, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 400-11, and American Federation- 
ist, April, 1913, vol. 20, pp. 296-302. Also Enrico Alfredo 
Masino, VOstilita degli Operai e delle loro Organizazzione. 
(Rome, 1913.) 

4 "Efficiency," Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 26. 



THE LITERATURE 267 

tigated" scientific management) in an official 
letter to the Machinists' Unions, in which he 
says: " Wherever this system has been tried it 
has resulted either in labor trouble and failure 
to install the system, or it has destroyed the 
labor organization and reduced the men to vir- 
tual slavery, and low wages, and has engen- 
dered such an air of suspicion among the men 
that each man regards every other man as a 
possible traitor and spy. . . . We trust that you 
will be impressed with the importance of this 
matter, and will see the impending danger. Act 
quickly." There is a bitter and flippant attack 
by John Mitchell, of the Mine Workers, in a 
book published by him in 191 3. * The pub- 
lished articles in newspapers on this subject are 
very numerous ; they are not listed here as they 
are variations on the same theme. 

The Machinists' Union and after it the 
American Federation of Labor have made the 
application of scientific management in govern- 
ment arsenals, particularly in the arsenal at 
Watertown, Massachusetts, the object of their 
official attack. Reference has already been 
made to the report of the committee appointed 

1 The Wage-Earner and his Problems, p. 59. Washington, 
D.C., Ridsdale, 1913. See also Samuel Gompers, "The 4 Effi- 
ciency ' Scape-Goat," American Federationist, July, 1913, vol. 
20, pp. 53I-33- 



268 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 

to investigate the trouble there in 191 1. In the 
19 1 3 Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 1 General 
Crozier deals with the petition of the Water- 
town employees referred to above. This peti- 
tion was evidently the first gun in the campaign 
inaugurated by the American Federation of 
Labor at their 1913 convention in Seattle, at 
which they decided officially to fight the exten- 
sion of the Taylor System. 2 

The best articles counseling the unions to 
take a saner point of view are those by Mr. 
Louis D. Brandeis, 3 in which he argues that 
scientific management is but the application of 
thought and knowledge to industry, that in- 
creased efficiency and production operate in the 
interest of the workingman, and that its .prog- 
ress and ultimate success are inevitable. The 

1 Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 1913. (Government Print- 
ing Office, Washington.) See also "Labor Efficiency," Outlook, 
November 1, 19 13, vol. 105, pp. 467-68. 

2 American Federation of Labor, Report of Proceedings, 
33d Annual Convention, held at Seattle, Washington, Novem- 
ber 10-22, 1913. Interesting articles bearing on this subject 
are those by Mr. Max H. C. Brombacher, "The Rock Island 
Arsenal Labor Trouble," Iron Age, vol. 89, p. 476; by Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel W. S. Peirce, on "Government Shop Manage- 
ment," ibid., p. 476; and an article, "Scientific Management 
at United States Arsenals," ibid., vol. 88, p. 1022, which in- 
cludes a statement of former Secretary of War Stimson. 

3 "The New Conception of Industrial Efficiency," Journal 
of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 35, and "Organized Labor and 
Efficiency," Survey, vol. 26, p. 148. See also chapters in 
Brandeis's Business — A Profession. (Boston: Small, May- 
nard & Co., 1914.) 



THE LITERATURE 269 

same thought is expressed by Mr. Harrington 
Emerson. 1 

On the other hand, scientific managers have 
been freely advised to recognize more fully the 
necessity of cooperation with the unions. This 
is the attitude of Mr. John R. Commons, 2 who 
points out that the bonus system implies an 
individual bargain with the workman, and 
therefore strikes at the very existence of the 
union, unless its terms can be made the subject 
of a collective bargain; of Dr. John H. Gray, 3 
and of the present writer, 4 who holds that the 
labor unions may and should assist in the de- 
termination of the standardized conditions and 
of a day's work and its attainment, and that 
the existence of the unions is and will continue 
to be necessary to maintain an adequate mini- 
mum wage. 

1 "The Fundamental Truth of Scientific Management," 
Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 17. See also Charles T. 
Root, "Efficiency and Lower Prices," Iron Age, December 15, 
1910, vol. 86, pp. 1344-45, and "Labor Unions and Efficiency," 
Nation, April 6, 191 1, vol. 92, p. 334. 

2 "Organized Labor's Attitude Towards Industrial Effi- 
ciency," American Economic Review, vol. 1, p. 463. 

8 "How Efficiency Should Benefit the Employer, the Em- 
ployee, and the Public," Transactions, The Efficiency Society, 
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The following references, with the exception of those printed 
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1 Hereafter abbreviated, Trans. A.S.M.E. 



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Do Taylor's Methods Increase Production? Ameri- 
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American Machinist, vol. 31, p. 610. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 285 

Evans, Holden A. Output Under Scientific Management. 

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Machinist, vol. 33, p. 1200. 

An Analysis of Machine-Shop Methods. American 



Machinist, vol. 31, pt. 1, p. 568. 

Flack, A. Machine Shop Experience with the Principle 
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Lewis, Wilfred. An Object Lesson in Efficiency. In Tech- 
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Methods of Management that Made Money. Industrial 
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Milwaukee Bureau of Economy and Efficiency. Bulletin 
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Porter, H. P. Observations on Scientific Management. The 
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President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency. 
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de Ram, Georges. Quelques Notes sur un Essai d 'Applica- 
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286 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Shaw, A. W. Scientific Management in Business. Review 

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Sterling, F. W. The Successful Operation of a System of 

Scientific Management. Journal of American Society of 

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Tardy, W. B. Scientific Management and Efficiency in the 

United States Navy. Engineering Magazine, vol. 41 

p. 545. Abstract in American Review of Reviews, vol 

44, p. 229. 
Taylor, A. K. Applying the Principles of Scientific Manage 

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P- 373- 
(The) Taylor System in Government Shops. Iron Age, vol. 8g 

p. 726. 
Towne, H. R. The General Principles of Organization Ap 

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Wallichs, A. Eindriicke vom Amerikanischen Maschinen 

bau. Werkstattstechnik, 1912, Heft. I. Berlin. 

III. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND THE 
RAILROADS 

Baker, Benjamin. Efficiency, Freight Rates and the Tariff 

Revision. Review of Reviews, vol. 43, p. 80. 
(The) Bonus System on the Santa Fe. Railway Age Gazette, 

VOl. 47, p. IIQ2. 

Brandeis, L. D. Scientific Management and Railroads. 
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Scientific Railroad Management. Engineering Maga- 
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Brewer, C. B. Substitute for the Rate Increase: Economics 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 287 

Burns, G. J. Notable Efficiencies in Railway Machine 

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191 1, p. 118. Abstract in Freight, vol. 12, p. 137. 
The Railroad Question : Brotherhoods and Efficiency. 

Atlantic Monthly, September, 1909, vol. 104, p. 289. 
DeGroot, E. H. The Switching Factor in the Efficiency 

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Elliott, Howard. Efficient Railway Management. (St. 

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288 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Fagan, J. O. The Dream of Scientific Management on 
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Fagan, J. O. and Abbott, E. H. Humpty Dumpty's Ques- 
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Harahan, W. J. Scientific Management. Railway Age 
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Hine, C. deL. Modern Organization. The Engineering 
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Hutchins, F. L. Letter on Scientific Management. Rail- 
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Jacobs, H. W. Betterment Briefs. Wiley & Sons, New 
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Mechanical Department Progress on the Frisco. Railway 
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Turner, L. H. Letter on Scientific Management. Railway 
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Van Alstyne, David. Efficient Shop Management. Rail- 
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290 BIBLIOGRAPHY 



IV. METHODS 

General Books 

Evans, H. A. Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. 

McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 191 1. 
Franklin, B. A. Experiences in Efficiency. Engineering 

Magazine Co., New York, 191 5. 
How Scientific Management is Applied. The "System" 

Co., Chicago, 191 1. 
J. S. H. Industrial Efficiency. Protectionist, December 4, 

1914, p. 542, vol. 26, no. 8. 
Knoeppel, C. E. Maximum Production in Machine Shop 

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1911. 
■ Current Foundry Inefficiencies and Practices. 

Foundry, September, 1914. 

Installing Efficiency Methods. Engineering Maga- 



zine Co., New York, 191 5. 

Le Chatelier, Henry. Organisation Scientifique, Principes 
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Parkhurst, F. A. Applied Methods of Scientific Manage- 
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Scientific Management in the Foundry. American 

Institute of Metals, September, 19 14. 

Polakov, Walter N. Power-Plant Betterment by Scientific 
Management. Engineering Magazine, April-September, 
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Taylor, F. W. Shop Management. Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 
24, p. 1337. Republished in book form by Harper & 
Bros., New York, 19 10. 

Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E. Concrete Costs. 
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1912. 

Thompson, C. Bertrand. Report on Scientific Manage- 
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— Scientific Management. Cambridge, Harvard Uni- 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 

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14, 1914; and Textile World Record, November, 1914, 
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Methods of Approach to the System 

Card, George F. Scientific Management. American Ma- 
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Dodge, J. M. The Spirit in which Scientific Management 
should be Approached. In Scientific Management, Tuck 
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Engineering, vol. 10, p. 350. 

Hathaway, H. K. Discussion of F. W. Taylor's " Art of 
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Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific Man- 
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Installation of Scientific Management (an editorial). 
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Kendall, Henry P. The Attitude of Management and Men. 
Industrial Engineering, May, 1913, vol. 13, p. 201. 

Osborne, W. Echoes from the Oil Country. American 
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Taylor E. M. Modern Methods and the Business Special- 
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Taylor, F. W. Changing from Ordinary to Scientific Man- 
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Thompson, C. Bertrand. How the Taylor System Works. 
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Functional Foremanship 

Calder, John. The Production Department. Trans. The 
Efficiency Society, vol. 1, p. 155. 

(The) Foreman's Place in Scientific Management. Indus- 
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Kimball, Dexter S. Choosing a Form of Organization. 
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Time and Motion Study 

Adamson, N. E., Jr. Production Betterment by Time 
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292 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Adamson, N. E., Jr. The Taking of Time Study Observa- 
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Cleary, Leo J. How Six Managers Saved Lost Motion. 
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Cost and Time Keeping Outfit of the Taylor System. 
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Cushing, Florence. Shop Methods Applied to Household 
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Ennis, W. D. An Experiment in Motion Study. Industrial 
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Frederick, J. G., and McCormach, H. S. Motion Study in 
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Gantt, H. L. "Hipped" on Motion Study. Industrial 
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Gilbreth, F. B. Chapter 14 of "Bricklaying System." 
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Motion Study. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 

1911. 

Motion Study for the Crippled Soldier. Junior 



A.S.M.E., December, 1915, p. 669. 

Motion Study in the Household ; reducing the cost 



of work in effort and time. Scientific American, April 13, 

1912, vol. 106, p. 328. 
Gilbreth, F. B. and L. M. Chronocyclegraph Motion 

Devices for Measuring Achievement. 2nd Pan-American 

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Motion Models: Their Use in the Transference of 

Experience and the Presentation of Comparative Results 

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Association for the Advancement of Science. 19 16. 
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Langley, Ralph W. Notes on Time Studies. Industrial 

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Measuring the Laborer's Worth; Laboratory Methods Ap- 
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Merrick, D. V. Making Instruction Cards from Time 

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March 11, 191 5, p. 560. 
Micro-Motion Study — a New Development in Efficiency 

Engineering. Scientific American, vol. 108, p. 84. 
Morrison, C. J. What Justifies a Change in Rate? American 

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Motion Study. Engineering, London, September 15, iqii, 

vol. 92, p. 357. 
Motion Study {an editorial). The Engineering Magazine, 

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Reed, H. W. A Time Study under the Taylor System. 

American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 688. 
Scott, W. D. The Rate of Improvement in Efficiency. 

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Shepard, George H. The Analysis of Practical Time-Motion 

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294 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Taking a Motion Apart. Literary Digest, February I, 1913, 
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Thompson, Sanford E. Time-Study and Task Work. Jour- 
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Watson, Marie Urie. Scientific Housecleaning. Craftsman, 
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"Lost Motions" in Retail Selling. System, vol. 21, 

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Classification 

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(A) Mnemonic System for Distributing Labor Costs on 
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Smith, Oberlin. Naming and Symbolizing. Engineering 
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Thompson, C. B. Giving a Business a Memory. System, 
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Routing 

Adams, C. W. Planning Work Ahead to Save Time. 
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Day, Charles. Industrial Plants. The Engineering Maga- 
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The Routing Diagram as a Basis for Laying Out 

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Furer, J. A. Management in the Drafting Room. Ameri- 
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Gantt, H. L. The Mechanical Engineer and the Textile 
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Hathaway, H. K. The Planning Department. Industrial 
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(The) Tool Room under Scientific Management (R. T. 
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Wallichs, A. Taylors Erfolg auf den Gebiete der Fabrik- 
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Standardization 

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The Respeeding of Machine Tools. American Ma- 
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-Standardizing Lathe Tool Posts. American Ma- 



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Machinist, vol. 41, no. 25, p. 11 12. 

Auel, Carl Bennett. Standardization in the Factory. Iron 
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Ballard, P. Scientific Management and Science. Cassier's 
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Barth, C. G. Slide Rules as Part of the Taylor System. 
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Carpenter, C. U. Profit-Making Management. The Engi- 
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Day, Charles. Advanced Practice of Economical Metal 
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Descroix, L. Les regies et cercles a calcul de Fred W. Tay- 
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Gilbreth, F. B. The First Case of Standardization. Trans. 

The Efficiency Society, vol. I, p. 257. 
The Instruction Card as a Part of the Taylor Plan of 

Management. Industrial Engineering, vol. 11, p. 380. 
Hall, Keppele. The Standardization of Papers. Paper, 

January 19, 1916. 
Kent, Robert T. Scientific Management in the Office. 

Iron Age, January 7, 191 5, vol. 95, no. 1, p. 82. 
Poliakoff, R. Charts for Taylor's Cutting Speeds and 

Feeds. American Machinist, November 26, 1914, vol. 

41, P- 935- 
Reed, H. W. Following a Fixed Schedule under the Taylor 

System. American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 1020. 
■ Two Turret Lathe Instruction Cards. American 

Machinist, vol. 36, p. 915. 
Rice, J. M. Scientific Management in Education. New 

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Selter, Fr. Ueber einen Versuch mit dem Taylor-Kalkula- 

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Wallichs, A. and Petersen, O. Taylors Untersuchungen 

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Cost Accounting 

Church, A. H. Production Factors. The Engineering 

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Elbourne, E. T. Factory Administration and Accounts. 
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Emerson, Harrington. Cost and Efficiency Records, one of a 
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Practising Efficiency and Knowing Costs — a Letter 

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Evans, H. A. Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. 
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Nicholl, John S. Scientific Cost-Keeping Methods for 
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Seubert, Rudolph. Aus der Praxis des Taylor-Systems. J. 
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Simeon, C. J. The Scientific Management of a Foundry. 
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Thompson, C. B. How to Find Factory Costs. Chicago, 
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Selection and Training of Employees 

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Emerson, Harrington. The Scientific Selection of Em- 
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Gantt, H. L. Work, Wages and Profits The Engineering 
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Gilbreth, F. B. and L. M. The Three Position Plan of 
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Labor Problems in Scientific Management. The Iron Age, 
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Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation. Houghton, Mifflin 
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Porter, Harry F. Showing Unskilled Labor " How." Fac- 
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Wages as Incentive 

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A Rational Basis for Wages. Trans, A.S.M.E., 

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Gantt, H. L. The Basis of Proper Management, American 
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Bonus System of Rewarding Labor. Review of Re- 
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-Bonus System of Rewarding Labor by the Bethlehem 



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-Equitable Labor Compensation and Maximum Out- 



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■Modifying Systems of Management. Trans. A.S. 



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■The Task and Bonus System. American Machinist, 



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■The Task and a Day's Work. Industrial Engineering, 



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•Task Work — The Basis of Proper Management. 



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-Work, Wages and Profits. The Engineering Maga- 



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Halsey, F. A., and Rowan, James. The Premium Plan of 
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Hastings, Clive. The Efficiency of the Worker and his 
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Short Sighted Methods in Dealing with Labor. 

Engineering Magazine, vol. 46, no. 4, p. 566. 



300 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Rowan, James. The Premium Plan at the Works of David 
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V. PERSONAL FACTOR IN SCIENTIFIC 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 301 

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302 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 303 

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304 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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VI. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND 
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The New Conception of Industrial Efficiency. Jour- 
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Organized Labor and Efficiency. Survey, vol. 26, 



p. 148. 

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Duncan, J. Efficiency. Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, 
p. 26. 



306 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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308 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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INDEX 



Abbott, E. H., 224 n. 

Adams, C. W., 216, 244 n. 

Adamson, N. E., Jr., 235 n., 
241 n. 

Administration, the dynamics 
of organization, 4. 

Alford, L. P., 212, 215, 242. 

Allingham, A. C, 210. 

Allison, L. W., 227 n. 

"All-round artisan, the," 163. 

American Federation of Labor, 
attitude of, toward scien- 
tific management, 91 ff.; 
quality of leadership of, 149, 
155; incompatibility be- 
tween, and scientific man- 
agement, 151; 267, 268 and 
n. 

American Society of Mechan- 
ical Engineers, 25, 177, 215. 

Apprentice schools, 162. 

Apprentices, limitation of , 150. 

Arnold, H. L., 216. 

Atcheson, Topeka and Santa 
Fe R.R., 44, 45 «., 95, 102, 
139, 218. 

Atkinson, M., 205 n. 

Auel, Carl B., 243 n. 

Automobile industry, routing 
system in, 66; lowering of 
prices with increased profit 
due to scientific manage- 
ment, 89, 157. 

Babbage, Charles, The Econ- 
omy of Manufactures, 176, 
177, 235. 

Babcock, G. D., 215. 

Barth, C. G., 23, 185, 186 and 
«., 217, 242. 

Benedict, H. G., 245 n. 



Bethlehem Steel Co., Taylor's 
service with, 21, 22; his 
work then comes to naught, 
22, 23; 81, 216, 255. 

Bibliographies, 175 n. 

Blackford, Katherine M. H., 
and Newcomb, Arthur, The 
Job, the Man, the Boss, 249 
and n. 

Blankenburg, Rudolph, Mayor 
of Phila., 42. 

Bloomfield, Meyer, Vocational 
Guidance of Youth, 248 ».; 
261. 

Bonus system, considered, yj 
ff.; results of, 79, 80, 121 ff.; 
effect of, on health of em- 
ployees, 80; accident statis- 
tics of those working under, 
80, 81; condemned by Con- 
gress, 92, 93; bases on which 
bonus is determined, 122, 
123; probable permanence 
of, 124/.; 9, 11, 47. 

Bonuses, dissatisfaction with 
amount of, 86, 87. 

Borst, Hugo, 209. 

Bradlee, H. G., 213 n. 

Brandeis, Louis D., brief in 
Eastern Rate Case, 193 and 
n. ; Scientific Management 
and Railroads, 221 ; Business 
a Profession, 268 n.; 215 n.; 
220 and «., 221. 

Brewer, C. S., 202. 

Brewer, C. B., 227 n. 

Bricklaying, astonishing re- 
sults of scientific manage- 
ment in, 58, 202. 

Brisco, Norris A., Economics 
of Efficiency, 211. 



3io 



INDEX 



Brombacher, M. H. C, 227 n., 

268 n. 
Brown, W. H., 204. 
Bruere, Martha B. and R. W., 

Increasing Home Efficiency, 

205. 
Burke, R. J., 248. 
Burkhalter, D., 196 n. 

Calder, John, 212 «., 213, 234, 
»., 262 n. 

Camp, S. V., 210. 

Canadian Pacific Ry. Co., 228 
and n. 

Card, George F., 230 n. 

Cardullo, Forrest E., 197, 198. 

Carlton, Frank T., 262. 

Carpenter, C. H., 243 n. 

Century Magazine, 264. 

Children, bearing of scientific 
management on employ- 
ment of, 138. 

Chronocyclegraph, 238. 

Church, A. Hamilton, Science 
and Practice of Management, 
211; The Proper Distribution 
of Expense Burden, 246 «.; 
Production Factors, 246 «.; 
199 n., 212, 254 n. 

Clark, S. A., and Wyatt, 
Edith, Making Both Ends 
Meet, 76 n., 255. 

Cleary, Leo J., 241 n. 

Closed shop, 151. 

Coburn, F. G., 199 n., 253 n. 

Collective bargaining, objec- 
tion of scientific manage- 
ment to, 146-148, 150, 153. 

Collins, G. A., 195 n. 

Colvin, F. H., 45 n., 219 n., 
222, 228. 

Commons, John R., 269. 

Competition, 109, no. 

Comte, Auguste, 12. 

Congress, Sixty-second, Re- 
port of House Committee 
on Labor, 77, 93, 192, 193, 
252. 



Congress, Sixty-third, Report 
of House Committee on 
Labor of, 93; prohibits 
stop-watch and bonus sys- 
tems, 93. 

Congress, Sixty-fourth, pro- 
hibits stop-watch and bonus 
systems, 94, 140. 

Conservation, Industrial. See 
Industrial Conservation. 

Conservatism of managers, an 
obstacle to progress of scien- 
tific management, 169, 170. 

Control in administration, 113, 
114, 115. 

Cook, A. M., 217. 

Cooke, Morris L., 42, 44, 196 
and n., 200, 201 and »., 261. 

Copley, F. B., 214 n. 

Cost, of scientific manage- 
ment, an obstacle to devel- 
opment, 170. 

Cost of living, influence of 
scientific management on, 
156-159. 

Cost system, Taylor's, 23, 71, 
72 ; literature concerning, 

245 #• 

Craft groups, tendency to 
abolish line between, 117, 
118, 119. 

Croly, Herbert, Progressive 
Democracy, 155 n. 

Crozier, Gen. William, re- 
port on savings under scien- 
tific management in three 
Arsenals, 74, 77, 79 «., 80, 
81 and «.; 52, 218, 219, 268. 

Cunningham, W. J., 221 n. p 
225, 226. 

Cushing, Florence, 240 n. 

Day, Charles, Industrial 
Plants, 195 and n.\ 44, 186 
n., 203, 243 n., 244. 

Day's work, the, 52 ff. 

Democracy in industry, ten- 
dency to, 166 ff. 



INDEX 



3ii 



Department stores, difficulty 
of applying scientific man- 
agement to, 43. 

Descroix, L., 242 n. 

Design, etc., application of 
scientific management to, 
not developed, 70, 71. 

Dewsnup, E. R., 228 n. 

Diemer, Hugo, Factory Organ- 
ization and Administration, 
211; 201 n. 

"Differential piece rate," 179, 
180, 181. 

Diminishing returns, law of, 
125. And see Negative re- 
turns. 

"Disciplinarian," the, 4$. 

Discipline, principle of, 10, 48. 

Distribution of product, 129- 

131. 

Dodge, James M., 23, 216, 
230 »., 252, 253. 

Domestic management, 204, 
205 and n. 

Dresser, Horatio W., Human 
Efficiency, 253 n. 

Drury, H. B., Scientific Man- 
agement, 179 «.; 261. 

Duchey, Louis, 260. 

Duncan, James, 92, 266. 

Dwight, F. H., 255. 

Eastern Rate Case, 102, 193 
and n., 220, 221. 

Education of employees, 161^*. 

Edwards, John R., 212. 

Efficiency, increase of, under 
scientific management, 84, 
85 ; change in conception of, 
103, 104. 

Efficiency systems, current 
types of, how differentiated 
from scientific management, 

13. 

Effort, Laws of, 9. 

Elbourne, E. T., Factory Ad- 
ministration and Accounts, 
247. 



Electrical Railway Journal, 264. 

Eliot, C. W., 215 n. 

Elliott, Howard, 221. 

Emerson, Guy C., 196 and n. 

Emerson, Harrington, how 
his theory differs from Tay- 
lor's, 49, 50; Efficiency, 206- 
208; The Twelve Principles, 
206-208; The Scientific Se- 
lection of Employees, 248, 
249; 43, 44, 45 and »., 182 
»., 203, 218, 220, 221, 222, 
223 and n., 225, 227, 250 n., 

Emerson Co., 43. 

Emerson System, application 
of time study in, 53, 54, 55; 
bonus system of, 78, 207; 
49, 50. 

Employees, effects on, 76 ff. t 
161 ff.; increased interest, 
loyalty, etc., of, 83, 84; in- 
creased efficiency of, 84, 85; 
initiative and skill of, how 
affected, 87, 131-133; or- 
ganized labor and, 90-97; 
difficulties with, not among 
causes of failure, 10 1; effect 
on, in respect to number 
employed, 128, 129; effect 
on health, 134; selection 
of, 248, 249. 

Engineering Magazine, 174, 
201 n. 

Engineering practice, Taylor's 
service to, 30. 

Engineers, capable of develop- 
ing scientific management, 
scarcity of, 170, 171. 

Ennis, William D., 237 n. 

Enterprise, initiative in, 133. 

Entrepreneurs, 107 ff. t 119, 124. 

Equipment, standardization 
of, 46, 47. 

Evans, Holden A., Cost Keep- 
ing and Scientific Manage- 
ment, 231, 232, 245, 246; 
217, 218, 256. 



312 



INDEX 



"Exception" principle, 10, 

48, 107, 114. 
Experts. See Personality. 

Factory, 175. 

Factory management, modern, 
in general, distinction be- 
tween, and scientific man- 
agement, 2, 3. 

Fagan, J. O., 224 and n. 

Failures of scientific manage- 
ment and their causes, 97- 
101; personality of experts, 
98, 99; shortcomings of 
management, 99, 100; finan- 
cial difficulties, 100; due to 
labor difficulties in only one 
case, 100, 10 1. 

Falkenau, A., 262 n. 

Fatigue, reduction of, 81, 82. 

Feiss, Richard A., 253 and n., 
255 and n. 

Felton, S. M., 227 n. 

Ferguson, B. M., 202. 

Ferracute Machine Co., 231. 

First-class man, the, 135. 

Fitchburg, roller-bearing con- 
cern in, Taylor's work at, 
23, 47, 81. 

Flack, A., 218. 

Flanders, Ralph E., 260. 

Foremanship, methods of, 23; 
functional, refined, 47, 48. 

Frankford Arsenal, 74. 

Franklin, B. A., Experiences 
in Efficiency, 233 n. 

Frederick, J. George, 204 n. t 
237 n. 

Freminville, C. de, 209. 

Frey, J. P., 92, 266. 

Fritch, L. C., 223 n. 

Fry, Charles H., 45 »., 222 n. 

Functional foremanship. See 
Foremanship. 

Furer, J. A., 244 ». 

Galloway, L., Hotchkiss, G. 
B., and Mayor, J., Business 
Organization, 211. 



Gantt, H. L., modifications of 
original Taylor methods 
introduced by, 49; methods 
of time study followed by, 
53, 54; his bonus plan, 183, 
184; Work, Wages and 
Profits, 183 and »., 184, 185, 
247, 250; Industrial Leader- 
ship, 257; 186 and n., 195, 
203, 216, 228, 237 n., 244 »., 
246 and n., 250 n., 257 n. 

Gantt System, bonus system 
under, 77, 78. 

Gary, E. H., 215 n. 

Gilbreth, F. B., Bricklaying, 
202 ; The Primer of Scientific 
Management, 206 n. ; Motion 
Study, 237, 238; Fatigue 
Study, 239; Motion Models, 
238, 239; Psychology of 
Management, 253 n.\ 205 n., 
240 n., 241 n., 243 n., 248, 
254 n., 258 and n. 

Gilbreth, Mrs. L. M., The 
Psychology of Management, 
206 n.; 254 «. 

Godfrey, John R., 257 n. 

Going, Charles B., Principles 
of Industrial Engineering, 
211; Methods of the Santa 
Fe, 222; 3 n. f 45 »., 179, 218, 
256. 

Golden, John, 266. 

Golf, as played by Taylor/ 18. 

Goldmark, Josephine, Fatigue 
and Efficiency, 254, 255. 

Gompers, Samuel, 267 n. 

Gray, John H., 269. 

Griscom, Lucy M., 205. 

Guernsey, J. B., 205. 

Gulick, Luther H., 254 n. 

Hall, K., 243 n. 

Halsey, F. A., 178, 182, 250 n. 

Hand operations, variable re- 
sults of application of sci- 
entific methods in, 59. 

Harahan, W. J., 227 n. 



INDEX 



313 



Hartness, James, 257. 
Hastings, Clive, 250 n. 
Hathaway, H. K., Elementary 

Time Study, etc., 53 n.\ 230 

»., 234, 235, 241 n. 
Health, of workmen, effect of 

scientific management on, 

134. 

Heard, Frank C, 240 n. 

Herschel, W. H., 260. 

Higgins, A. C, 262 n. 

Higgins, M. P., 254 n. 

Hinckley, B. S., 227 n. 

Hine, C. de L., Modern Organi- 
zation, 226. 

Hines, W. D., 224 n. 

Hopkins, Ernest M., 261. 

Hotchkiss, G. B. See Gallo- 
way. 

Housekeeping Experiment Sta- 
tion, 205. 

Howes, E. P., 258. 

Hoyt, Charles W., Scientific 
Sales Management, 204. 

Hudson, Frank C., 256. 

Hutchins, F. L., 224. 

Incentive, 9, 10, 11. 

Income, inequality of, influ- 
ence of scientific manage- 
ment on, 165, 166. 

Individual abilities, develop- 
ment of, 118, 119. 

Individuals, scientific manage- 
ment and, 10. 

Industrial Conservation, Sci- 
ence of, 7, 8, 11, 112, 113. 

Industrial Engineering, 175, 
199 n., 201 n. 

Industrial law, 5. 

Industrial organization, prin- 
ciples of, 4, 7, 9 ff. 

Industrial plants, in which 
scientific management is ap- 
plied, 38-40; classification 
of, 40 n. 

Industrial Workers of the 
World, 97, 151, 155. 



Initiative of employees, how 
affected, 87; and scientific 
management, 108; in in- 
vention and enterprise, 133, 

134- . 

Inspection of materials, in 
scientific management and 
other systems, 67; "first in- 
spection," 67, 68. 

Instruction cards, 57. 

International Iron Molders 
Union, 266. 

Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission, 193 n., 220. 

Invention, increased by de- 
velopment of scientific man- 
agement, 113, 114; initia- 
tive in, 133. 

Iron Age, 265. 

Italy, scientific management 
studied by syndicalist lead- 
ers in, 115. 

Jackson, D. C, 194 n. 
Jacobs, H. W., Betterment 

Briefs, 222 n. 
Jandron, F. L., 222 n. 
Jessup, H. W., 206. 
Johnson, James R., 213 n. 
Jones, Edward D., 221 »., 260. 

Kellogg, Paul U., 261. 
Kendall, H. P., 199 »., 217, 

230 n. 
Kent, Robert T., 238 n., 241 n., 

243 n., 247, 253 n. 
Kimball, Dexter S., Principles 

of Industrial Organization, 

211; 212 n., 213 n., 234 n., 

260. 
Klyce, E. D. K., 256. 
Knoeppel, C. E., Installing 

Efficiency Methods, 233; 53 

n., 233 n. 
Kochmann, W., 259. 

Labor, method of handling, 46, 
47; subdivision of , 109, no. 



3H 



INDEX 



Labor, organized, and scien- 
tific management, 91 ff., 
J 39 ff-> certain principles 
and practices of, condemned 
by advocates of scientific 
management, 141; restric- 
tion of output constantly 
practiced by, 141-143; wage- 
question, 144, 145; collec- 
tive bargaining, 146-148; re- 
cognition of unions, 147, 
149; the strike question, 148, 
149; union men in scientific 
management plants, 150; 
divers policies of, contrary 
to principles of scientific 
management, 151; possibili- 
ties of cooperation by mutual 
modifications, 1 51-154. 

Labor problem, questions con- 
cerning effect of scientific 
management on, n6Jf. 

Labor unions. See Labor, or- 
ganized. 

Lahy, J. M., 259. 

Langley, Ralph W., 235. 

Large-scale organization, 109, 
no. 

Larsen, L. A., Scientific Man- 
agement, 206 n. 

LeChatelier, H., Organisa- 
tion Scientifique, etc., 209 
and ».; 153 «., 200, 201 n. 

Lederer, E., 259. 

Leech, C. C, 227. 

Lefevre, Th., 236. 

Leupp, Francis L., 205 n. 

Lewis, Howard T., 263 n. 

Lewis, Wilfred, 203, 217, 255 
n. 

Link Belt Co., 23, 65, 216, 252. 

Literature of scientific man- 
agement, classifications of, 

173-175- 

Lyon, Tracy, 199 n. 

McCormack, H. S., 237 n. 
McDonald, P. B., 195 n. 



Machinery, power-driven, in- 
troduction of, not parallel 
to development of scien- 
tific management, 127, 128. 

Machine-shop work, improve- 
ments in the methods of, 58. 

Machines, industrial, increase 
of output of, 58, 59. 

Machinists' Union, 267. 

Maclaurin, Richard C, 201 n. 

Managers. See Entrepreneurs. 

Manual training schools, 
methods of scientific man- 
agement applied in, 44. 

Mariotti, Angelo, 263 n. 

Masino, Enrico A., 204 n., 
266 n. 

Materials, standardization of, 
46, 47- 

Mathews, Shailer, Scientific 
Management in the Churches, 
206. 

Mayor, J. See Galloway. 

Membership in unions, re- 
striction of, 150. 

Merrick, D. V., 235. 

Metals, Taylor's work on 
cutting of, 20, 21. And see 
Taylor, F. W. 

Metcalf, Henry, The Cost of 
Manufactures, etc., 187 and 
n. 

Meyer, George von L., 203 
and n. 

Meyers, G. J., 6 n., 198, 199. 

M id vale Steel Co., Taylor's 
service with, 19, 20, 30, 31; 

• 47, 179, 181, 216. 

Milwaukee, Bureau of Effi- 
ciency and Economy of, 43. 

Milwaukee Electric Ry., 229. 

Minimum-wage legislation, 
136. 

Mitchell, John, The Wage- 
Earner and his Problems, 
267; 92, 215 n. 

Moffett, C, 221 n. 

Montoliu, C, 259. 



INDEX 



315 



Morrison, Clarke J., 221 n., 
223 n., 227 «., 250 n. 

Motion study, an inseparable 
feature of time study, 56; 
use of moving pictures in, 
56, 57; literature concern- 
ing, 237 ff. 

Moving pictures, used in mo- 
tion study, 56, 57. 

Miinsterberg, Hugo, Psy- 
chology and Industrial Effi- 
ciency, 9, 253 and »., 254. 

National Industrial Relations 
Commission, 91. 

Nearing, Scott, 258. 

" Negation returns, point of," 
11 and n., 112 ff. 

New England, scientific man- 
agement in, in. 

New York City, Comm'rs of 
Accounts of, 43. 

Nicholl, John S., 246. 

Norris, H. M., 266 n. 

O'Connell, James, 91, 266 and 
n., 267. 

One Hundred Per Cent, 175. 

Organization, on craft lines, 
151. And See Industrial 
Organization. 

Organized labor. See Labor. 

Osborne, W., 230 n. 

Ostwald, W. F., 206. 

Outerbridge, A. E., Jr., 254 
n. 

Output, increase of, under sci- 
entific management, 123, 
127, 128; increase of, post- 
poned to development of 
sales, 129, 130; restriction 
of, 141-143- 

Parkhurst, F. A., Applied 
Methods of Scientific Man- 
agement, 231; 233 n. 

Parsons, Frank, Choosing a 
Vocation, 248 and n. 



Pattison, Mary, Principles of 
Domestic Engineering, 205. 

Peck, E. C, 213 n. 

Pecuniary and technical re- 
sults of scientific manage- 
ment, distinguished, 50-52. 

Peirce, W. S., 268 n. 

Pennsylvania State College, 
44. 

Perrigo, Oscar E., 211. 

Perry, E., 214 n. 

Person, H. F., 201 n. 

Personality of experts a po- 
tential cause of failure or 
success, 98, 99. 

Petersen, O., 186 n. 

Philadelphia, application of 
scientific management in 
Dep't of Public Works of, 
42. 

Philbrick, H. S., 214 n. 

Piece-rate system, 179, 180, 
181. 

Polakov, Walter N., 233. 

Poliakoff, R., 242. 

Popke, A. G., 214 n. 

Porter, Henry F., 247 n. 

Pouget, E., 263 n. 

Power-driven machinery. See 
Machinery. 

Premiums. See Bonus system. 

Prices, not lowered by scien- 
tific management, 88, 89 ; the 
automobile industry an ex- 
ception, 89. 

Printing plants, routing sys- 
tem in, 66. 

Production engineering, 102. 

Professions, application of 
scientific management to, 
205, 206. 

Psychophysical sciences, 7, 9. 

Public, the, and scientific 
management, 88, 89. 

Public service corporations, 
46. 

Purchasing department, func- 
tion of, 60-62. 



3i6 



INDEX 



Railroads, and scientific man- 
agement, 44, 45, 102, 103; 
literature concerning, 220- 
229. 

Ram, Georges de, 217. 

Redfield, William C, 192, 252. 

Reed, H. W., 235, 241 n. 

Reitzel, C. E., 261. 

Rice, J. M., Scientific Man- 
agement in Education, 202. 

Richards, A. F., 182 n. 

Root, Charles T., 269 n. 

Rose, Frank H., 254 n. 

Routing system, 62 ff.; results 
of, 65; effectiveness of, 65, 
66; literature concerning, 
244; 23, 62 Jf. 

Rowan, James, 178, 250 n. 

St. Louis and San Francisco 
R.R. Co., 229. 

Sales, development of, 129. 

Sales department, possible ap- 
plication of scientific man- 
agement to, 72, 73. 

Scanferla, G., 210. 

Scheduling and despatching 
systems. See Routing sys- 
tem. 

Schlesinger, G., 210. 

Schmidt, at Bethlehem Steel 
Co., 81, 240. 

Scientific American, 203 n. 

Scientific management, de- 
fined, 2ff. ; how distinguished 
from other types, 5 ff.; 
scheme of laws and principles 
on which it is based, 7, 8 ; and 
psychophysical sciences, 9; 
eminently "practical," 9; 
principles stressed in deal- 
ings with individuals, 10; 
its most distinctive contribu- 
tion in the field of principles 
rather than in that of laws, 
11, 12; further defined, 12; 
positiveness of its control, 
12; how distinguished from 



current "efficiency systems," 
13; its aim summarized, 13, 
whole number of applica- 
tions of, 37; statistics of 
distribution, etc., 37 ff.; 
in department stores, 42; in 
manual training schools, 43; 
value of its methods in oper- 
ation of railroads, 44, 45; in 
other public service corpora- 
tions, 46 ; primary objects of, 
and how accomplished, 46 
ff.; modifications of orig- 
inal form of, by Gantt and 
Emerson, 49, 50; technical 
and pecuniary results of, 
distinguished, 50-52; time 
study, 52 ff. ; possible appli- 
cation of, to selling and fi- 
nancing, 72, 73; real test of, 
its net effect on business as 
a whole, 74, 75; gross results 
of, less favorable, 75, 76; 
effect of, on employees, 
76 ff.; and the public, 88, 
89; effect on prices, 88, 89; 
and organized labor, 90 ff.; 
J 39#-; general influence of 
movement, 101-104; appli- 
cation of, and the need of in- 
itiative, enterprise, etc., 108, 
effect of, on competition and 
large-scale production, 109, 
no; subdivision of labor 
in, 109; effect of, on inven- 
tion, 113, 114; tendency of, 
to enlarge supply of mana- 
gers, etc., 115, 116; and the 
labor problem, 116 ff.; its 
effect on wages, 120, 121, 
160, 161; the bonus system, 
121 ff.; development of, not 
parallel to introduction of 
power-driven machinery, 
127, 128; effect of, on num- 
ber of workmen employed, 
128, 129; and on their health; 
134; and the sweating sys- 



INDEX 



317 



tern, 137, 138; bearing of, 
on employment of women, 
137; and children, 138; and 
the American Federation of 
Labor, 151; possibilities of 
cooperation with organized 
labor, 1 51-154; not an in- 
dustrial panacea, 154; and 
the cost of living, 1 56-1 59 ; 
and the problem of unem- 
ployment, 159-161; effect 
of, on education and skill of 
employees, 1 61-165; on in- 
equality of income, 165, 
166, and on the tendency 
toward democracy of indus- 
try, 166 j#".; forecast of fu- 
ture of, 169-172; literature 
of criticism of, 212 Jf. And 
see Cost System, Failures, 
Routing System, Taylor, 
F. W., Taylor System, Time 
Study. 

Scientific training, increased 
importance of, 109. 

Scott, Walter D., 237 n., 248. 

Seattle, 43. 

Selection, principle of, 10; by 
capacity, 167-169; of em- 
ployees, 248, 249. 

Sellers Company, 18. 

Selter, Fr., 242 n. 

Seubert, R., Aus der Praxis 
des Taylor-Systems, 232, 
246; 210. 

Shaw, A. W., 215. 

Sheafe, J. S., 227 n. 

Simeon, Charles J., 246 n. 

Skill, effect of scientific man- 
agement on, 131-133. 

Smith, J. Russell, Elements of 
Industrial Management, 211 
and n. 

Smith, Oberlin, The Naming 
of Machine Parts, 187 and 
«.; 245 n., 262 n. 

Specialization, 10, 114, 118, 
132, 162, 163, 164. 



Specialization of administra- 
tion, 46, 47. 
Spillman, W. J., 196 n. 
Springfield (Mass.) Arsenal, 

74- 
Standard of achievement, how 

set, 47. 
Standard of living, 120, 125, 

126. 
Standardization of materials, 

and equipment, 46, 47, 68, 

69; literature concerning, 

243, 244. 
Steel, high-speed, method of 

heat treatment of, 21, 22; 

an epoch-making discovery, 

30, 68, 69. 
Sterling, E. A., 196 n. 
Sterling, Frank W., 216. 
Stimson, Henry L., 268 n. 
Stimpson, H. F., 227 n. 
Stimulation. See Incentive. 
Stop-watch system, 92, 93. 
Stone, Warren S., 225 n. 
Stratton, G. F., 264, 265. 
Strikes, organized labor and, 

148, 149. 
Suplee, H. H., 243 n. 
Sweating system, scientific 

management as a means of 

combating, 137, 138. 
Symons, Wilson E., 223 and n. 
System, defined, 4. 
System, 175, 232 n. 

Tabor Manuf'g Co., 216, 217, 
232. 

Tarbell, Ida M., 214. 

Tardy, W. B., 203, 217. 

Tavenner bill, 94. 

Taylor, E. M., 230 n. 

Taylor, Frederick W., pioneer 
and leader in theory and 
practice of scientific man- 
agement, 2, 3, 6, 8; prin- 
ciples of industrial organi- 
zation developed by, 11, 12; 
Sketch of his career, 14 ff.\ 



3i8 



INDEX 



while with Midvale Steel 
Co., evolves some of the 
underlying principles of his 
system, 19, 52; difficulties 
encountered in development 
and application of his 
methods to various indus- 
tries, 20; radical and revo- 
lutionary in his methods, 
20; his devices for securing 
funds, 21; his work on cut- 
ting metals, 21; with Beth- 
lehem Steel Co., 21, 22; 
invents method of heat 
treatment of high-speed 
steel, 21, 22, 68; results of 
his work at Bethlehem de- 
stroyed, 22, 23; brings cer- 
tain parts of his system to 
final development at Fitch- 
burg, 23; reorganizes ma- 
chine-shop in Phila., as an 
experiment station and 
training-school, 24, 25; sci- 
entific management becomes 
almost a religion to, 24, 25; 
devoted himself to spread- 
ing the propaganda of the 
movement, 25; President of 
American Association of 
Mechanical Engineers, 25; 
his labors with labor leaders, 
25, 26; his death and fun- 
eral, 26; sketch of his char- 
acter, 27-34; his scientific 
work, 30 ff. ; left followers, 
but no successor, 34, 35; 
and the method of func- 
tional foremanship, 47; how 
Emerson's theory differs 
from his, 49, 50; first prac- 
tices time study at Mid- 
vale, 52; his cost system, 
72; attitude of, toward or- 
ganized labor, 94; his " first- 
class man," 135; and the 
differential piece rate, 179 
ff.; investigations of de- 



tailed processes, 185 j(f.; 48, 
49, 5i, 53, 7i, 92, 104, 113, 
171, 207, 208, 214 n., 227, 
230 and n., 247, 250, 256, 
257 and n., 262, 263, 264. 

His writings: The Art of 
Cutting Metals, 8, 11, 25, 186 
and n., 242; Shop Manage- 
ment, 25, 53 n., 153 n., 185, 
187, 189-192, 192 n., 230, 
231, 235, 244, 251, 262, 263; 
Principles of Scientific Man- 
agement, 25, 185, 188, 189, 
200, 251, 258; "A Piece- 
Rate System," 179 ff., 188; 
"Notes on Belting," 185; 
"Cultivation of Golf 
Greens," 194; Miscellane- 
ous articles, 194 n. 

Taylor, F. W., and Thomp- 
son, S. E., Concrete Costs, 
53 n., 194, 231. 

"Taylor group," the, 31, 32. 

Taylor System, distinctive 
features of, 10; underlying 
principles of, evolved dur- 
ing Taylor's service with 
Midvale Steel Co., 19; 
begins where Emerson Sys- 
tem ends, 50; methods of 
time study followed in, 
53 ff- '■> bonus system under, 
77, 78; opposition of organ- 
ized labor to, 91 ff.; opposi- 
tion to, at Watertown Ar- 
senal, 95; and the Santa Fe 
engineers, 95 ; what it really 
is, 191, 192; report of Water- 
town Arsenal Investigating 
Committee on, 192, 193; 
literature in criticism of, 
212 ff. 

Technical and pecuniary re- 
sults of scientific manage- 
ment distinguished, 50-52. 

Technical training, impor- 
tance of, in scientific man- 
agement, 109. 



INDEX 



319 



Thompson, C. Bertrand, Sci- 
entific Management, 6, 53 «., 

J 53 n -> J 55 n -> 2I ° n -i 2 3 2 W -J 
Report on Scientific Man- 
agement, 232; How to find 
Factory Costs, 246 n.; 199, 
230 »., 245 n., 250 w., 257 n., 
269 w. 

Thompson, Sanford E., 182 n., 
231, 235, 2 50 n. And see 
Taylor, F. W. and Thomp- 
son, S. E. 

Tilson, John Q., 192. 

Time study, first practiced by 
Taylor at Midvale, 52; 
various methods of, dis- 
cussed, 53 ffr, results of, 
57 ff.] demonstrates impor- 
tance of standardized con- 
ditions, 68; first effects of, 
85, 86; literature concern- 
ing, 234 ff. 

Towlson, J. T., 250 n. 

Towne, Henry R., 177, 182, 
250 n., 262 n. 

Unemployment, problem of, 
90, 91; reduction of, and 
scientific management, 159- 
161. 

United States Chamber of 
Commerce, 140 n. 

Van Alstyne, David, 221 n., 

254 n. 
Van Deventer, John H., 199 

n. 
Vanderlip, F. A., 215 n. 
Vaughan, Mr., 228. 
Veblen, Thorsteen B., The 



Instinct of Workmanship 
and the State of the Indus- 
trial Arts, 200. 
Voight, A., 210. 

Wages, effect of scientific 
management on, 77, 120, 
121, 160, 161; application 
of the bonus system, 77 ff. ; 
uniform and differential, 
144, 145, 147, 148. 

Waldron, F. A., 211, 213, 
233 n. 

Walker, Amasa, 204 n. 

Walker, W. O., 250 n. 

Wallichs, A., i86w.,209,2i5 n. 
244 n. 

Watertown Arsenal, strike of 
molders at, 91, 95, 192, 193; 
64, 74. 77, 79 »•, 80, 81, 139, 
171, 219, 267. 

Watson, Marie U., 240 n. 

Webster, A. G., 201 n. 

White, Maunsel, 22, 68, 186. 

Whiting, F. J., 254 n. 

Wight, C. H., 244 n. 

Wilson, William B., 192. 

Wirz, Wilhelm, 210. 

Women, bearing of scientific 
management on employ- 
ment of, 137. 

Wooley, E. M., 237 «., 243 n., 

247. 

World's Work, 264. 

Wright, Carroll D., Profit- 
Sharing, 250 n. 

Wyatt, Edith, 76. And see 
Clark, S. A. 

Zepp, F. F., 228. 



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